Online Article and more

Recommendations for future research are discussed

2008-06-26T12:53:00.000-07:00

Elderly Patients and Family Members Satisfaction With Discharge Planning

The problem is that elderly patients may be discharged from the hospital before appropriate discharge planning is complete. The purpose of this pilot study was to determine elderly patients' and their family members' level of satisfaction and perceptions with the overall quality of hospital discharge planning.

Limitations of the pilot study as well as implications for nursing practice and education are described.

An Emerging Strategic Vision in World Affairs

2008-06-25T08:51:00.000-07:00

Advances in the field of information and communication technologies have substantially affected most segments of our life, leading to the Information Age or Information Revolution. On both individual and state scale, 'information' has become a vital 'commodity' by which one measures levels of knowledge, skills, well-being, prosperity and development. This academic work traces the evolution of the Information Age and the emerging trends of diplomacy and politics in today's world. It signals potential opportunities and threats, while strategically forecasting current and future implications.

Including three major chapters, the work is divided into eleven significant themes. It reviews the emergence of knowledge-based societies and highlights their main features. The course of globalization, the worldwide Internet development, the consequences of restricting the flow of information, and the Revolution in Military Affairs are among the issues examined.

Also thoroughly treated is the evolution of diplomacy, with reference to information and intelligence gathering, analysis, and policy-making. The publication outlines the qualifications of diplomats and executives required at the present and coming stages of professionalism. In addition to examining contemporary traditional and non-traditional conflicts around the globe, it takes a look at U.S. hegemony policies in world affairs.

Certain cultural and social issues directly linked to the Information Age are dealt with as well. They refer to the growing importance of culture and identity awareness in an era of increasing social interdependence, and to the global evolution of languages and their use in everyday life and in current affairs.

The book concludes with a set of observations in the aftermath of the September 11 attacks on the United States. The observations point to particular notions and developments that influence our way of living, politics and diplomacy. Furthermore, specific analysis is made to the U.S. invasion in Iraq in March 2003 and to its consequences.

The Information Age and Diplomacy
Source www.disertation.com

Generalized complex submanifolds

2008-05-25T08:07:00.000-07:00

Abstract

We introduce the notion of twisted generalized complex submanifolds and describe an
equivalent characterization in terms of Poisson–Dirac submanifolds. Our
characterization recovers a result of Vaisman (2007). An equivalent characterization
is also given in terms of spinors. As a consequence, we show that the fixed locus of an
involution preserving a twisted generalized complex structure is a twisted generalized
complex submanifold. We also prove that a twisted generalized complex
manifold has a natural Poisson structure. We also discuss generalized Kähler
submanifolds.

Keywords

generalized complex geometry, Poisson bivector, Poisson–Dirac submanifold

Mathematical Subject Classification

Primary: 53C56, 53D17, 53D35

Existence of singular positive solutions for some semilinear elliptic equations

2008-05-25T08:01:00.000-07:00

Abstract

We study positive solutions of an equation with singular nonlinearities.
The equation arises in the study of equilibrium states of thin films.
Under weak assumptions on the nonlinearity, we show that for
N ≥ 3 there exists a family
of radial solutions {uα}α>0
with uα(0) = α and each of
them is oscillatory in (0,∞).
We obtain then a singular radial solution in
(0,∞) by taking the limit
α → 0. Meanwhile, using the
solutions obtained in (0,∞),
we show some existence results for the corresponding Neumann eigenvalue problem
on a ball.

Keywords
elliptic equation with singular nonlinearity, rupture solutions, oscillation

Mathematical Subject Classification

Primary: 35J60, 35B45, 35B05

Kepemimpinan Keorganisasian

2008-05-13T20:40:00.000-07:00

Kepemimpinan Keorganisasian

Zainul Arifin

Perebutan ketua terjadi mulai dari tingkat rayon yang terkadang menimbulkan persoalan kebelakang. Dibeberapa tempat, cabang-cabang terjadi banyak permasalahan sebagai akibat dari perebutan ketua umum. Dalam praktek kita memcoba menggali berbagai problem yang terjadi sekaligus dengan solusinya.

Peserta diminta untuk menuliskan sifat paling jelek yang dimilikinya.

Peserta diminta menuliskan kelemahan dan kelebihannya.

Peserta diminta untuk saling menukarkan kertas yang berisi sifat jelek, kelemahan dan kelebihannya

Masing-masing peserta membaca kertas temannya kemudian diminta memberikan penambahan sifat, kelemahan dan kelebihan temannya.

Salah satu peserta diminta secara berani mengungkapkan perasaannya ketika mengungkapkan perasaan temannya dan perasaan dirinya.

Sifat baik :

Menghargai orang lain

Bisa bergaul dengan siapapun

Bekerja keras

Sifat jelek :

Sulit menerima jika disakiti

Angkuh pendendam

Kelemahan : tak tercopy

Kelebihan : tak tercopy

Perasaan ketika mengungkapkan :

1. Berat tidaknya mengungkapkan kepribadian, sifatnya personal, tak seorangpun yang menginginkan diketahui kelemahannya.

2. malu mengungkapkankebaikan karena dikira sombong

3. belum mengetahui bagaimana sifat yang sebenarnya karena sebelumnya belum saling mengenal.

4. penulisan sifat baik, kekurangan dan kelebihan dapat dikatakan sudah jujur, tetapi mungkin kurang maksimal dalam mengungkapkannya. Secara pribadi, senang jika sifat jeleknya diketahui oleh orang lain.

Peserta diminta menulis kelemahan dan kelebihan dari Pergerakan Mahasiswa Islam Indonesia.

Peserta diminta saling menukar kemudian mengkoreksi dan menambahi.

Kelebihan :

- jaringan luas

- nama besar

- tahan banting

- bisa membentuk kader militant

kelemahan :

Kepemimpinan :

1. Personal

- kenali diri

kita tidak akan mudah hidup jika kita tidak mengetahui diri kita. Proses kepemimpinan yang baik adalah jiika kita mengetahui diri kita sendiri. Kita harus mengetahui apa kekurangan dan kelehihan kita, karena tanpa itu kirta sulit memahami diri kita. Konsep kepemimpinan yang pertama dalaha kita bisa memehami siapa diri kita. Usaha mendialogkan diri kita dengan realitas (resiensi). Dengan mengetahui kelemaham kita dapat berusaha untuk meningkatkannya. Dengan berorganisasi kita bisa saling melengkapi kekurangan-kekurangan yang saling kita miliki. Dengan mengetahui kekurangan diri kita bisa menangkap peluang

- tentukan visi

banyak teman-teman pasti akan bingung ketika ditanya mengapa kuliah di PTS X ? karena mereka tidak mengetahui untuk apa dan mengapa ia kuliah di situ. Apa yang menjadi sejarah masa depan kita ? apa target pribadi kita ? adalah syarat mutlak yang harus kita miliki. Visi merupakan sejarah masa depan yang perlu untuk dirumuskan. Problem organisasi terkadang berangkat dari persoalan-persoalan pribadi yang pada akhirnya dapat menghambat jalannya organisasi. Kalo dalam organisasi tidak ada yang memenej, maka akan mnjadi momok dalam oragnisasi itu sendiri. Pergerakan Mahasiswa Islam Indonesia mempunyai potensi untuk menjadi penekan kekuatan politik sehingga harus dimanage. Bagaimana kita harus bisa mendistribusikan kader-kader yang memiliki potensi di bidang politik. Jika tidak seperti itu, bisa menimbulkan konflik organisaqsi (tidak terlepas dari orang-orang yang sudah seharusnya tidak di Pergerakan Mahasiswa Islam Indonesia ). Kita jadi kan Pergerakan Mahasiswa Islam Indonesia semacam koperasi untuk menaih karier dan belajar, kita bisa menyimpan dan meminjam kelebihan dan kelemahan. Tugas Pergerakan Mahasiswa Islam Indonesia tidak hanya mencetak kader, tetapi kader tersebut harus dikemanakan ?

- ambil langkah/bila perlu beresiko

jika anda memiliki target, anda juga harus siap dengan sgala kemungkinan. Kadangkala seseorang kalau terlalu berharap, ia cenderung melupakan kemungkinan-kemungkinan yang terjadi. Kita harus siap dengan alternative-alternatif yang lain. Seorang pemimpin tidak boleh memiliki sikap murung atau bersedih walaupun sedang menghadapi kesulitan.Kita harus siap dan berani dalam menhadapi segala masalah-masalah yang muncul.

- komunikasi

tidak banyak dari kita bisa mengungkapkan pikirannya walaupun dia orang yang tergolong cerdas. Komunikasi merupakan salaha satu kemampuan yang harus dimiliki seorang pemimpin sehingga diharapkan mampu melakukan negoisasi. Performance dan gaya bicara juga perlu ditekankan, karena harga diri kita dapat terlihat dari cara berpakaian kita.

- evaluasi hasil

apa yang menjadi target kita harus dievaluasi untuk melihat sejauh mana langkah-langkah yang telah kita lakukan. Kemajuan-kemajua yang tercapai dapat dijadikan ukuran untuk kepemimpinan selanjutnya. Kelebihan harus dikembangkan dan sebaliknya segala kekurangan-kekurangan harus dilengkapi.

2. Conporat/organisasional

- kenali organisasi anda

Kelemahan di Pergerakan Mahasiswa Islam Indonesia adalah tidak adanya persediaan pendanaan yang teratur. Kemudian yang kedua adalah kaderisasi. Memahami karakter setiap kader yang kemudian didstribusikan sesuai dengan kemampuan ug dimilikinaya.

- kenali visi

apa yang menjadi rumusan terkadang hanya menjadi huruf-huruf yang tidak dilaksanakan.

- ambil resiko (langkah)

untuk menjalankan apa yang menjadi visi atau realitas organisasi. Disitu aka terjadi benturan-benturan.

- komunikasi organisasi yang efektif

Dalam organisasi harus mampu menjalin kompunikasi yang baik.

- mengecek hasil

forum-forum yang ada sering kali hanya menjadi semacam temu kangen. Tidak ada konsistensi untuk menajalankannya. Workshop kaderasasi yang dilaksanakan pada saati ini dengan tujuan menyusun materi kaderisasi sedikit menyimpanga, sebab hal tersebut sudah pernah dirumuskan pada muspim. Workshop kali ini lebih pada melakukan desain dan implikasi yang perlu dilakukan.

The Journal of Economic Theory

2008-04-17T00:43:00.000-07:00

Antoni Calvó-Armengol

Antoni ("Toni") Calvó-Armengol passed away on November 3, 2007 at the age of 37.

Economics has not only lost a wonderful and energetic person, but also a gifted theorist.

Toni made important contributions on several subjects, and in a short time had become one of the leading theorists of his generation. Some of the highlights include Toni's work on social networks in labor markets. That work showed how patterns of employment and wages that were not well-understood with existing models could be explained when one takes into account the sharing of job information through networks. He also developed a simple but elegant network model of criminal behavior and other interactions that involve local network complementarities. The model provides an elegant connection between behavior and the centrality of players in the network, showing how the influence of players on equilibrium play can be accounted for with existing measures of how central a player is. Toni's research was wide-ranging, and even explored his Andorran roots. In one paper, he showed how a mutual fire insurance scheme, called "La Crema," used in the rural farm communities of Andorra could be understood as an efficient mechanism for sharing risk.

Toni's deep passion for economics and for life will be sorely missed.

Selected Publications:

Antonio Cabrales, Antoni Calvo-Armengol, and Matthew O. Jackson (2003) "La Crema: Fire Insurance in a Village Economy of Modern Day Europe," Journal of Political Economy, vol. 111, no. 2, pp 425-458.

Antoni Calvo-Armengol and Matthew O. Jackson (2004) "The Effects of Social Networks on Employment and Inequality," American Economic Review, Vol. 94, No. 3, 426-454.

Antoni Calvo-Armengol (2004) "Job Contact Networks," Journal of Economic Theory, 115, 191-206.

Caralio Ballester., Antoni Calvo-Armengol, and Yves Zenou (2006) "Who's Who in Networks: Wanted the Key Player," Econometrica, Vol. 74, No. 5, 1403-1417.

Antoni Calvo-Armengol and Matthew O. Jackson (2007) "Networks in Labor Markets: Wage Dynamics and Inequality," Journal of Economic Theory, Vol. 132, No. 1, 27-46.

Gender dalam Keluarga

2008-04-17T00:37:00.000-07:00

1. Pada 5 tahun pertama dalam kehidupan seorang anak, pembentukan identitas gender menjadi sangat penting karena tahap itu adalah tahap ketika seorang anak akan mengolah informasi yang didapatnya dengan optimal dan merubahnya menjadi debuah skema yang akan diterapkan dalam kehidupannya di masa yang akan datang. Pembentukan gender yang dimaksud adalah pembentukan gender sesuai dengan kebudayaan dimana anak tersebut tinggal. Hal tersebut perlu dilakukan agar anak tersebut kelak dapat diterima di lingkungannya dengan baik. Namun, dalam proses sosialisasi peran gender tersebut, perlu pula ditekankan bahwa gender bukan merupakan kodrat yang mutlak tidak dapat diubah, gender adalah sesuatu yang bisa dipertukarkan antara laki-laki dan perempuan.

Sewaktu kecil, seingat saya, saya tidak merasa harus menjadi feminin hanya karena saya adalah seorang anak perempuan. Saya pun tidak merasa saya harus maskulin. Saya merasa tidak terbebani dengan maskulinitas dan feminitas. Saya harus berbuat benar karena memang itulah yang harus dilakukan oleh seorang anak, terlepas dari dia laki-laki atau perempuan. Saya boleh menangis ketika kesakitan atau bersedih, namun tentunya dalam batasan wajar, tidak terlalu lama dan berlebihan. Saya bisa bermain apa saja tanpa pengecualian. Saya bebas mencita-citakan profesi apapun yang saya inginkan. Saya dapat bermain dengan siapa saja tanpa membeda-bedakan jenis kelamin teman bermain saya.

Setalah semakin dewasa tentunya saya melihat, merekam, dan memahami berbagai pengalaman yang saya dapat sendiri maupun dari orang lain mengenai gender. Hal tersebut semakin meyakinkan saya bahwa sejak kecil memang saya tidak hidup di lingkungan yang bias gender, sehingga membuat saya bisa menjadi orang yang tidak bias gender dalam hidup. Kalaupun sekarang saya merasa saya cenderung dominan feminin, itu bukan karena lingkungan saya yang mengharuskan, namun karena saya yang memilihnya. Dan tingginya feminitas saya tidak membuat saya tidak berusaha konform dengan maskulintas. Saya masih berkeyakinan bahwa menjadi mandiri, tegas, berani dan memiliki kemampuan itu penting. Saya pun merasa bahwa hal itu akan membawa keuntungan bagi saya selama saya dapan mengkombinasikan feminitas dan maskulinitas saya dengan baik sesuai dengan porsinya.

2. Berdasarkan pengamatan saya, dalam masyarakat Indonesia sudah terlihat adanya gejala kohabitasi. Hal ini dapat kita lihat dalam tayangan-tayangan televisi yang dengan terang-terangan menayangkan kehidupan para artis yang tinggal serumah tanpa menikah, dan bahkan dengan bangga mengatakan mereka mempunyai anak di luar pernikahan. Misalnya, sebut saja artis bernama Andy Soraya yang tinggal serumah dengan Steve Immanuel tanpa menikah. Mereka bahkan juga mempunyai seorang anak hasil hubungan mereka. Mereka bahkan mengaku tidak akan menikah karena menurut mereka pernikahan hanya akan membawa mereka ke dalam situasi yang sifatnya mengekang dan hal itu tentu tidak menyenangkan bagi mereka. Mereka berkeyakinan bahwa mereka akan lebih bahagia jika mereka bisa saling memberi tanpa perlu adanya pengorbanan.

Contoh lain, misalnya kehidupan mahasiswa di kampus-kampus tertentu. Laki-laki dan perempuan tinggal dalam satu kamar kost. Di kampus-kampus tertentu hal ini sudah menjadi rahasia umum. Mereka tidak merasa membutuhkan suatu komitmen lebih lanjut, dalam hal ini pernikahan, karena tanpa komitmen itu pun mereka bisa hidup senang tanpa memikirkan norma dan aturan yang berlaku di masyarakat.

Dalam kohabitasi yang terjadi pada contoh-contoh kasus di atas, perilaku gender memang tidak terlalu terkesan kaku. Pasangan-pasangan tersebut tidak begitu mempersoalkan perbedaan peran antara mereka sebagai laki-laki dan perempuan. Dalam artian, mereka dapat saja dengan mudah bertukar peran antara laki-laki dan perempuan ketika memang hal itu diperlukan. Hal ini dapat jelas ketika kita melihat perilaku gender pada pasangan kohabitasi yang sudah mempunyai anak. Dalam kasus diatas, pada pasangan Andy Soraya dan Steve Immanuel, mereka sangat toleran dalam perilaku gender mereka sehari-hari. Steve Immanuel mengaku tidak keberatan jika dia memang harus mengurus anak mereka sewaktu Andy Soraya bekerja. Pola komunikasi gender yang fleksibel juga ditunjukkan oleh pasangan kohabitasi yang tidak mempunyai anak, meskipun tidak terlalu jelas. Dalam hubungan mereka, mereka tidak menganut azas patriarkhi yang biasanya dianut oleh kebanyakan pasangan menikah di Indonesia. Kecenderungan terjalinnya pola komunikasi gender yang fleksibel ini mungkin dikarenakan pasangan-pasangan yang memutuskan untuk berkohabitasi adalah pasangan-pasangan merasa modern dan menganggap aturan-aturan hanya akan menyusahkan mereka, sehingga dalam berkomunikasi gender pun mereka tidak terlalu ambil pusing dengan standar-standar perilaku sesuai dengan jenis kelamin yang dibentuk oleh masyarakat dan bahkan oleh agama.

3. Saya menggolongkan diri saya mempunyai ego boundaries yang dapat menyesuaikan dengan lingkungan tempat saya tinggal. Dengan ego boundaries yang dapat menyesuaikan lingkungan itulah saya dapat lebih mudah dalam berkomunikasi gender. Saya merasa mampu memilah dan memilih sikap, cara berbicara, isi pembicaraan tergantung siapa lawan bicara saya dan suasana yang mendukung berlangsungnya komunikasi.

Misalnya ketika saya harus berbicara dengan orang yang sedang terlihat murng, maka saya merasa harus lebih hati-hati dalam berbicara, menggunakan suara yang lembut, bersikap hangat, dan menyejukkan. Namun ketika saya berbicara dengan sahabat saya yang sudah saya kenal dengan sangat dekat, mungkin saya tidak merasa harus selembut dan sehati-hati seperti saya sedang berbicara dengan orang yang sedang murung tadi. Saya akan merasa lebih nyaman untuk bercanda dan berbicara dengan santai. Dan cara berkomunikasi pun akan lain jika saya berbicara dengan orang yang lebih tua daripada saya. Saya akan menggunakan bahasa yang sopan, ramah, menunjukkan penghargaan saya terhadap beliau tanpa bersikap berlebihan.

4. Mainan yang saya dapatkan dari oang tua saya sewaktu kecil hampir selalu boneka. Menurut saya, boneka-boneka yang diberikan oleh orang tua saya sesuai dengan identitas gender saya sebagai perempuan. Sebagai anak perempuan, saya diharapkan untuk menjadi perempuan yang lembut dan penuh kasih sayang. Boneka yang mereka berikan pada saya dapat melatih kepekaan dan mengasah rasa kasih sayang saya terhadap sesama. Karena boneka itu saya perlakukan layaknya manusia yang harus saya sayangi, saya manjakan, dan saya perlakukan hati-hati.

Namun sekali waktu, saya pernah meminta mainan mobil-mobilan yang bisa dinaiki dan dikemudikan. Orang tua saya tidak keberatan untuk membelikannya, karena menurut mereka mainan mobil-mobilan itu tidak akan menimbulkan permasalahan dalam perkembangan identitas gender saya. Meskipun saya diharapkan menjadi seorang anak perempuan yang peka terhadap sesama dan penuh kasih sayang, mungkin dengan mobil-mobilan yang mereka belikan dapat mengajarkan saya bahwa saya kelak harus jadi mandiri. Mereka dengan senang hati menemani saya yang sedang bermain seolah-olah sedang mengendarai mobil sendiri menuju suatu tempat. Mungkin dengan begitu mereka sedang mengajarkan saya untuk tidak tergantung kepada orang lain.

5. Model maskulinitas dan feminitas yang diajarkan orang tua saya ditunjukkan dengan contoh-contoh perilaku sehari-hari mereka di rumah. Feminitas yang diperlihatkan oleh Ibu saya berupa sikap perhatian kepada anak-anak dan suaminya, lemah lembut, penyayang, selalu bersedia dijadikan tempat mengadu oleh anggota keluarga yang lain, bersahabat, tulus, menyejukkan. Sedangkan siakp maskulin yang ditunjukkan oleh Ayah berupa sikap tegas , dominan, kuat, mandiri, dan memimpin. Namun demikian, hal-hal tersebut tidak menghalangi Ayah dan Ibu bersikap sebaliknya. Dalam artian, Ibu dapat saja bersikap tegas ketika memang saya melakukan kesalahan dan beliau merasa perlu menegur, dan Ayah juga dalam situasi tertentu sangat dapat bersikap bersahabat dan mesra misalnya seperti memberikan kecupan selamat tidur kepada anak-anaknya.

Hal tersebut menurut saya sangat bermuatan genser namun tidak menimbulkan bias. Saya menjadi tahu apa yang biasanya dan sepatutnya dilakukan oleh seorang Ibu atau Ayah, namun semua hal itu tidak bersifat mutlak. Mereka pun dalam memberikan pendidikan secara langsung kepada anak-anaknya tidak berbias gender. Misalnya, mereka melarang saya bangun siang bukan karena saya anak perempuan tapi karena memang seharusnya semua orang bangun pagi dan melakukan hal berguna. Contoh lain, mereka mengharuskan saya bersikap sopan karena memang sudah sepatutnya semua orang, baik laki-laki maupun perempuan berlaku sopan kepada orang yang lebih tua.

6. Menjadi laki-laki dan perempuan pada masa ini sebenarnya tidak jauh berbeda dengan menjadi laki-laki dan perempuan pada masa sebelumnya. Perbedan justru terlihat dari persepsi masyarakat mengenai gender. Dewasa ini jumlah masyarakat yang memahami gender sudah meningkat dari masa sebelumnya, setidaknya masyarakat mejadi tahu bahwa gender ini berbeda dengan kodrat. Sebagian masyarakat sudah mengetahui bahwa gender hanyalah merupakan identitas yang dibentuk dan ditempelkan masyarakat pada masing-masing jenis kelamin. Peningkatan pengetahuan itulah yang dapat mempermudah seseorang dalam menentukan perilaku gender. Sekarang sudah hampir dapat dikatakan tidak ada lagi pengekangan hak perempuan untuk menuntut ilmu setinggi-tingginya, tidak ada lagi batasan jenis kelamin untuk profesi tertentu. Bahkan perempuan pun bebas bekerja seharian penuh di luar rumah untuk menambah penghasilan keluarga dan menyerahkan pengasuhan anaknya kepada orang lain, misalnya kepada pembantu, seorang laki-laki tidak lagi tabu berlenggak-lenggok di catwalk sebagai pragawan, berkreasi sebagai designer, dll. Pada masa ini, menurut saya seorang perempuan atau laki-laki dapat menentukan pilihan mereka sendiri. Budaya yang dianut masyarakat dewasa ini juga masih memegang peranan dalam penentuan sikap sebagai laki-laki atau perempuan, namun pada masa kini hal itu tidak lagi menjadi penentu utama. Karena masyarakat pun sudah semakin terbiasa dengan hal-hal seperti itu. Laki-laki dan perempuan dipandang setara dengan berbagai karakteristik yang berbeda untuk dapat saling melengkapi dalam hidupnya.

Namun, tidak semua masyarakat yang hidup di zaman sekarang sudah berpikiran terbuka mengenai gender. Masih ada juga masyarakat yang buta gender dan masih menganggap gender sebagai suatu hal yang absolut. Laki-laki dan perempuan masih dipandang tidak sejajar, dimana laki-laki harus selalu menjadi panutan yang absolut, kuat, asertif, mandiri, pemimpin, dan dominan. Sedangkan perempuan seolah-olah diposisikan di bawah, lebih rendah daripada laki-laki, harus selalu mengabdi dan melayani suami apapun yang terjadi. Demikian kuatnya bias gender yang ditanamkan dalam kehidupan sebagian masyarakat ini, sampai-sampai mereka masih mempertahankan budaya bias gender pada masa ini.

Hal-hal yang tidak saya sukai tentang menjadi perempuan adalah ketika berada diantara orang-orang yang masih berbias gender. Tentunya berada di tengah-tengah orang-orang semacam itu akan membuat saya merasa diremehkan dan dianggap lemah, bahkan merasa dilecehkan. Selebihnya saya suka menjadi seorang perempuan.

7. Keluarga dapat berperan dalam merubah steroetipi sosialisasi nilai-nilai gender terhadap anak-anak mereka. Keluarga idealnya menjadi faktor utama dalam perkembangan seorang anak, termasuk di dalamnya membentuk identitas gender seorang anak. Tahapan terpenting dalam pengolahan informasi menjadi sebuah skema yang akan diterapkan seorang anak adalah pada 5 tahun pertama kehidupannya, dan pada umumnya 5 tahun pertama seorang anak akan dihabiskan bersama keluarganya. Anak-anak dapat juga berhubungan dengan orang lain di luar lingkungan keluarga, namun tetap yang menjadi panutan utama mereka adalah keluarga. Oleh karena itu peran keluarga dalam mensosialisasikan gender sangatlah penting, sehingga keluarga menjadi sangat penting dalam merubah sosialisasi nilai-nilai gender terhadap anak-anak.

Cara yang harus dilakukan pertama kali adalah dengan merubah semua cara mendidik anak yang bias gender, dan menerapkan didikan yang berbasis gender dengan tepat. Dengan menerapkan didikan bahwa gender itu dapat dipertukarkan. Misalnya, dengan tidak lagi melarang anak laki-laki menangis jika kesakitan, tidak melarang anak perempuan bercita-cita sebagai pilot, menerapkan disiplin yang sama antara anak laki-laki dan perempuan, tidak hanya mendidi anak laki-laki untuk jadi kuat dan mandiri, tetapi juga mendidik anak perempuan agar dapat mandiri dan tidak cengeng, dsb.

Thesis title collections

2008-02-19T02:59:00.000-08:00

SPRING 2005

Karen Lee Aten
Nursing
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Liane Connelly
Thesis Title: The Relationship of Professional Self-Concept of Staff Nurses and Intent to Stay at Current Job Position

Abdolazeez R. Attalep
Communication
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Carrol Haggard
Thesis Title: Effectiveness of Public Relations Textbooks Utilized in Saudi Arabia’s Colleges and Universities

Darin J. Challacombe
Psychology (General)
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Greg Turek
Thesis Title: Embodied Attraction: How Body Postures can Influence Attraction

Elizabeth Dail Cline
Speech Language Pathology
Thesis Advisor: Dr. C. Frederick Britten
Thesis Title: Auditory Processing Abilities of Adult Male Offenders

Scott William Cumming
Geology
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Kenneth R. Neuhauser
Thesis Title: 3-D Seismic Interpretation in the Catherine Oil Field Area of Ellis County, Kansas

Tena M. Elwood
Nursing
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Karolyn Kells
Thesis Title: Attrition and the Presence of Hardiness in Nursing Students

Sonia Esquivel
Counseling
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Billy C. Daley
Thesis Title: The Latino Student Perception of Their Experience at Fort Hays State University

Takehito Ikejiri
Geology
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Richard J. Zakrzewski
Thesis Title: Anatomy of Camarasaurus Lentus (Dinosauria: Sauropoda) from the Morrison Formation (Late Jurassic), Thermopolis, Central Wyoming, with Determination and Interpretation of Ontogenetic, Sexual Dimorphic, and Individual Variation in the Genus

Curtis Lauterbach
HHP
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Duane Shepherd
Thesis Title: The Effect of Flexibility Training on Flexibility Power and Agility in Female Athletes Participating in Track and Softball

Shauna R. Marquardt
Biology
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Jerry R. Choate
Thesis Title: Differential Energetic Demands of Chiropteran Maternity Roosts as Determined by Diet

Dee Ann Nelson Rundell
Nursing
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Liane Connelly
Thesis Title: Nurse Empowerment and Job Satisfaction in Rural Kansas Hospitals

Carrie Ann Schmidt Konen
Nursing
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Liane Connelly
Thesis Title: Mentoring, Job Satisfaction, and Intent to Stay of Novice Midwestern Hospital Staff Nurses

Lance Thurlow
Biology
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Eric Gillock
Thesis Title: Characterization of an Environmental Bacterium by 16s rRNA Sequence Analysis, Fatty Acid Methyl Ester Analysis, and Scanning Electron Microscopy

Back to Top

FALL 2004

Toni Marie M. Alstrom
School Psychology
Field Study Advisor: Dr. Stephen Kitzis
Field Study Title: The Relation between Severity of Disability and Postsecondary Plans

William E. Genereux
Liberal Studies (INT)
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Mark Bannister
Thesis Title: Understanding Student Information Systems in Kansas Community Colleges

Eric R. Johnson
Biology
Thesis Advisor: Dr. William J. Stark
Thesis Title: Population Characteristics of the Introduced White Perch (Morone Americana) in the Ninnescah River System and Assessment of Community Structure after Invasion

Jennifer B. Karnatz
Speech-Language Pathology
Thesis Advisor: Dr. C. Frederick Britten
Thesis Title: The Larson Consonant Sound Discrimination Test: Reliability and Validity Data for Third through Sixth Grade Students

Rachel A. Knight
Biology
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Karen R. Hickman
Thesis Title: Assessment of the Spread and Distribution of Old World Bluestems (Bothriochloa Spp.) at Local and Landscape Scales

Karen A. McCullough
Education Administration
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Billy C. Daley
Thesis Title: Burnout in College Seniors

Curtis J. Schmidt
Biology
Thesis Advisor: Dr. William J. Stark
Thesis Title: Natural History and Status of the Exploited Prairie Rattlesnake (Crotalus Viridis) in Western Kansas and a Herpetofaunal Inventory of the Smoky Valley Ranch, Logan County, Kansas

Allison Sosa
Communication
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Carrol Haggard
Thesis Title: Communication Image: A Survey and Analysis of Communication Methods used by a Rural Non-Profit Organization

Trevor Stapp
Communication
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Carrol Haggard
Thesis Title: Subliminal Messages: Do they Really Affect People's Behaviors and Motivational States?

Darci Wederski
Nursing
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Liane Connelly
Thesis Title: Self-Esteem of Inmates who Participate in a Dog Program

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SUMMER 2004

Heather Alexander
Communication
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Carrol Haggard
Thesis Title: The Correlation Between Students Perceptions of Their Body Image and
Communication Apprehension

Denise Boone
School Psychology
Field Study Advisor: Dr. Steve F. Duvall
Field Study Title: An Observational Study of How Elementary Non-Disabled Students are Academically and Behaviorally Affected by the Inclusion of a Student with Mental Retardation in the General Education Classroom

James Newman
Biology
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Duane A. Hinton
Thesis Title: Effects of Blood Enhancement Techniques on Short Tandem Repeat (STR) Analysis

Christina Robben
School Psychology
Field Study Advisor: Dr. Stephen Kitzis
Field Study Title: Students Diagnosed with ADHD and the Effects They Have on the Behavior of Regular Education Middle School Students

Amanda William
Psychology
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Carol L. Patrick
Thesis Title: Resilience, Optimism, and Meaning

SUMMER 2005

Jeannine Kuhlman Bergsma
School Psychology
Field Study Advisor: Dr. Steven F. Duvall
Field Study Title: Relational Aggression in Young Adolescent Females

Kimberly J. Brady
Psychology (Clinical)
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Carol Patrick-Land
Thesis Title: A Comparison of Empathy and Moral Development in Child Molesters within a Court-Mandated Outpatient Treatment Program

Alisha Lynn Eickhoff
School Psychology
Field Study Advisor: Dr. Steven F. Duvall
Field Study Title: An Observational Study Examining the Academic and Social Interaction Behaviors of Students with Learning Disabilities in Three Different Educational Settings: Inclusive, Resource, and Regular Education Classrooms

Charlotte Hinger
History
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Raymond Wilson
Thesis Title: African American Activists: The Pioneer Politicians of Nicodemus, Kansas, 1877-1880

Jiang-Bo Huang-Fu (Peter)
Communication
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Carrol Haggard
Thesis Title: Education in an Age of Globalization: A Study of the Relationship between Interaction and Satisfaction in the FHSU/SIAS Joint Distance Education Program

Steven D. Keil
Liberal Studies
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Chris Crawford
Thesis Title: An Assessment of the Relationship between Character Development and Moral Leadership

Jessica Jane Linenberger
School Psychology
Field Study Advisor: Dr. Steven F. Duvall
Field Study Title: The Academic Engagement and Social Skills Behaviors of Elementary Students with Learning Disabilities within Resource, Inclusion, and General Education Classroom Settings

Charmaine McDonald
Art
Thesis Advisor: Linda Ganstrom
Thesis Title: Transformation

Katharine L Miller
Psychology (Clinical)
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Carrie Nassif
Thesis Title: A Meta-Analysis of Dialectical Behavior Therapy across Variable Populations and Settings

Brett Murray
School Psychology
Field Study Advisor: Dr. Steven F. Duvall
Field Study Title: A Comparison of Academic Engagement and Social Interaction for Four Students with Learning Disabilities across Instructional Settings with Varying Degrees of Restrictiveness

Thaveesilp Dang Nimchanya
Art
Thesis Advisor: Linda Ganstrom
Thesis Title: Rapprochement in Clay

Andrea J. Ring
Psychology (Clinical)
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Greg Turek
Thesis Title: The Effects of Lyrics of Selected Popular Music Forms on Body Image

Jonathon S. Russell
Art
Thesis Advisor: Chaiwat Thumsujarit
Thesis Title: Inspiration: Artifact

Yolanda Raquel Salinas
Psychology (Clinical)
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Kenneth Olson
Thesis Title: False Memory and the DRM Paradigm: The Relations of Recall and Recognition with Stress and State-Trait Anxiety

Rebecca A. Streifel
Psychology (Clinical)
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Greg Turek
Thesis Title: An Examination of the Relations among Body Image Distortion, Body Dissatisfaction, Unhealthy Body Mass Index, and their Prediction of Drive for Thinness

Shane R. Trentman
School Psychology
Field Study Advisor: Dr. Steven F. Duvall
Field Study Title: An Exploratory Study Assessing the Academic Engagement and Social Interaction of Fifth and Sixth Grade Students with Specific Learning Disabilities in Regular Education, Inclusive, and Resource Rooms

Sarah L. Whitford
School Psychology
Field Study Advisor: Dr. Steven F. Duvall
Field Study Title: An Exploratory Study of the Rate of Academic Engagement and Social Skills for Children with Emotional Disturbances within the Resource Room, Inclusion Setting, and the General Education Classroom

Leaf Yi Zhang
Communication
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Carrol Haggard
Thesis Title: Instructional Communication Via Video Program in Distance Learning: The Relationship between Instructors’ Immediacy Behaviors, Student Motivation and Satisfaction

FALL 2005

Todd R. Buchanan
Geosciences
Thesis Advisor: Dr. John Heinrichs
Comparison of Geographic Information System Software (Arcgis 9.0 and Grass 6.0): Implementation and Case Study

Sean Hottois
Art (Graphic Design)
Thesis Advisor: Karrie Simpson Voth
Thesis Title: Transmuted Perception

Coronda Hoy
Education Administration
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Billy Daley
Thesis Title: College Student Identity Development

Dan Koster
Communication
Thesis Advisor: Dr. C. Sue Strohkirch
Thesis Title: Mud Slinging: Frequency of Negative Television Advertisements Used by Campaigns Affiliated with the Two Major U.S. Political Parties

Neil Ray
Geosciences
Thesis Advisor: Dr. K.R. Neuhauser
Thesis Title: A Refractory Earth Meteorite: Suggested Distant Impact Ejecta from Chicxulub Impact Crater

Sherrie Kay Stawinski
Biology
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Eric Gillock
Thesis Title: Characterization of a Saccharopolyspora by 16S rRNA Sequencing, Fatty Acid Methyl Ester Analysis, and Scanning Electron Microscopy

Curtis J. Wolf
Biology
Thesis Advisor: Dr. William J. Stark
Thesis Title: Survey of Freshwater Mussels (Bivalvia: Unionoidea) in Three River Drainages and an Evaluation of Seasonal Flow Requirements as a Correlate of Mussel Recruitment

Xiao Xin
Communication
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Carrol Haggard
Thesis Title: Communication Apprehension of Asian Students’ Speaking English as a Second Language

SPRING 2006

Tanya L. Beauchamp
Nursing
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Liane Connelly
Thesis Title: Structural Empowerment and Decisional Involvement in Acute Care Nursing

Christina A. Cox
Special Education
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Ronald Fahey
Thesis Title: Experimental Analysis of Electronic and Non-Electronic Strategies for Reading Comprehension

Linda Gobin
Nursing
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Sandra Tweed
Thesis Title: Intuition: Differences Between Novice and Expert Nurses

Amy Hoffsommer-Cluthe
HHP
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Duane Shepherd
Thesis Title: The Influence of Personality Traits with Physical Activity Participation and Body Esteem

Tamara J. Lynn
Liberal Studies
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Arthur L. Morin
Thesis Title: Effectively Meeting the Mental Health Needs of Juvenile Offenders in Correctional Facilities in the State of Kansas

Denise K. Orth
Communication
Thesis Advisor: Dr. C. Sue Strohkirch
Thesis Title: How Communication Apprehension Influences Radiologic Technology Students’ Messages

Charlotte Schirmer
Nursing
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Liane Connelly
Thesis Title: Leadership Style of Rural Chief Nurse Executives in Kansas

Samantha Scott
English
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Steven Trout
Thesis Title: Multivocality and the Female Bildungsroman: Zora Neale Hurston’s Their Eyes Were Watching God, Louise Erdrich’s Love Medicine, and Demetria Martínez’s Mother Tongue

Matthew G. Sexson
Biology
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Greg Farley
Thesis Title: Nest-Site Selection and Reproductive Success of the Western Snowy Plover in Kansas

Snehal Shrivastava
Speech-Language Pathology
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Amy Finch
Thesis Title: A Screening Test of Aphasia for Individuals who Speak Hindi

Kimberly R. Strahm
Psychology (Clinical)
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Carol Patrick
Thesis Title: Attachment, Self-Esteem, and Cigarette Smoking Habits in College Students

Jane Tanking
Nursing
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Liane Connelly
Thesis Title: Patients’ Perceptions and Nurses’ Perceptions of Nurse Caring Behavior

Anthony Thomas
Biology
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Greg Farley
Thesis Title: Assessment of West Nile Virus Prevalence Using RT-PCR in Resident and Migratory Birds of Western Kansas

SUMMER 2006

Keri Bakker
HHP
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Jeffrey S. Burnett
Thesis Title: Effects of Required Physical Activity on College Students’ Attitudes

Eva Briones
School Psychology
Field Study Advisor: Dr. Stephen Kitzis
Field Study Title: Heritage Language Shift in Dual Language Kindergarten Students

Jennifer Cole
School Psychology
Field Study Advisor: Dr. Steven F. Duvall
Field Study Title: A Comparison across Settings between Levels of Academic Engagement and Social Interaction in an Emotionally Disturbed Student

Jessica Conner
Art (Ceramics)
Thesis Advisor: Linda Ganstrom
Thesis Title: Tender Situations

Stephanie L. Crist
School Psychology
Field Study Advisor: Dr. Carol Patrick
Field Study Title: The Relations among Parenting Style, Self-Concept and Academic Achievement

Derek John Eccles
School Psychology
Filed Study Advisor: Dr. Heath Marrs
Field Study Title: How do School Psychologists Overcome Language Differences When Assessing Students Who Have Limited English Proficiency? A Survey of School Psychologists and Their Current Practices

Zane A. Engelbert
Geosciences
Thesis Advisor: Dr. John F. Heinrichs
Thesis Title: Quantifying Ring-Necked Pheasant (Phasianus Colchicus) Population Size in Northwest Kansas Using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)

Roshawna Essmiller
Speech-Language Pathology
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Marcia Bannister
Thesis Title: A Study of Dynamic Assessment of Narrative Skills in Bilingual Hispanic Children

Nancy Flax
Art (Ceramics)
Thesis Advisor: Linda Ganstrom
Thesis Title: Guardians

Travis Larsen
History
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Raymond Wilson
Thesis Title: Ahead of the Curve: A History of the National Baseball Congress Tournament in Wichita, Kansas 1935-2005

Liang Liang
Communication
Thesis Advisor: Dr. C. Sue Strohkirch
Thesis Title: Framing Starts with Selecting Facts: A Content Analysis of the News Reports on an Air Collision between a U.S. and Chinese Warplane in April 2001

Candace M. Mehaffey-Kultgen
Liberal Studies
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Arthur L. Morin
Thesis Title: East Meets West: Chinese Mianzi and Guanxi as Cultural Obstacles to U.S. – China Business Relations

Timothy C. Mullin
Geology
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Richard J. Zakrzewski
Thesis Title: Systematics, Osteology, Sexual Dimorphism, Age Classes, and Population Dynamics of Teleoceras Fossiger from Jack Swayze Quarry, Clark County, Kansas, and Minium Quarry, Graham County, Kansas

Jennifer Mettlen Nolan
Art (Ceramics)
Thesis Advisor: Linda Ganstrom
Thesis Title: America’s Nuclear Family

Manpreet K. Rai
Psychology
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Stephen Kitzis
Thesis Title: Short Term Memory Decay in Children and Adults

Erin N. Renard
Communication
Thesis Advisor: Dr. C. Sue Strohkirch
Thesis Title: Deconstructing the Vagina Monologues: A Taxonomic Approach to Social Change

Ben Schlitter
Art (Graphic Design)
Thesis Advisor: Karrie Simpson Voth
Thesis Title: Manual

Benton A. St. Cyr
Psychology (Clinical)
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Carrie Nassif
Thesis Title: Intrinsic VS. Extrinsic Motivation: An Analysis of Recovery from Substance Abuse

Christina Wolf
Psychology (Clinical)
Thesis Advisor: Dr. Carrie Nassif
Thesis Title: Leaving an Abusive Relationship: Is There Any Hope?

SIMPLE FORMAT WITH A LONG TITLE SO YOU CAN SEE WHAT TO DO WITH IT

2008-02-19T02:42:00.000-08:00

TITLE OF THESIS OR DISSERTATION: SIMPLE FORMAT WITH A LONG TITLE SO YOU CAN SEE WHAT TO DO WITH IT

A Dissertation Presented
by
SAMANTHA S. STUDENT

Submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Massachusetts Amherst in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (or DOCTOR OF EDUCATION)
Month Year
Official Graduate Program Name
Copyright by Samantha S. Student 2004
All Rights Reserved

TITLE OF THESIS OR DISSERTATION: SIMPLE FORMAT WITH A LONG TITLE SO YOU CAN SEE WHAT TO DO WITH IT

A Dissertation Presented
by
SAMANTHA S. STUDENT

Approved as to style and content by:
Name O. Chairr, Chair
First O. Member, Member
Second M. Name, Member
Name, Department Head or Dean as appropriate Department Name
DEDICATION [optional]

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS [optional]
ABSTRACT TITLE OF DISSERTATION
DEGREE DATE
NAME OF STUDENT, B.A., COLLEGE OR UNIVERSITY
M.A., COLLEGE OR UNIVERSITY
Ph.D., UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS AMHERST
Directed by: Professor Xxxx Y. Zzzz

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

LIST OF TABLES
Table Page

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page

CHAPTER 1 NEW SCIENTIFIC DARWINISTS Introduction This chapter shows how Darwin's theory of evolution was applied to the study of human evolution by two of the most enthusiastic of the new scientific Darwinists, T. H. Huxley and Ernst Haeckel. Both Huxley and Haeckel adopted the anti-creationist aspects of Darwin's theory and used them to attack many traditional beliefs and social institutions, as well as to advance the claims of science to be an authority within society. The chapter also shows how Darwin's theory provided a basis for the foundation of comparative psychology by G. J. Romanes. Thomas Henry Huxley Huxley argued against primary anthropocentrism and the two forms of evolutionary anthropocentrism--"yes, but" and "Crown of Creation"--which are attempts to resurrect supernatural control of evolution or to portray humans as the goal of creation However, he is himself an example of the "engineering mentality" form of anthropocentrism. In this section of this chapter I focus on Huxley's contribution to the evidence favoring the application of the theory of evolution to human beings. Huxley saw evolution in general and human evolution in particular as what one would expect of life in an ordered but ceaselessly changing universe. According to Huxley, "naught endures save the flow of energy and the rational order which pervades it."1 In using the adjective "rational," Huxley did not suggest that he believed in a rational Mind or Lawgiver rather he meant that he believed the order of the universe to be comprehensible by a rational mind. The principle of the universe is order, and scientists are gradually discovering that order. The most fundamental principles of that order, as they are observed by humans, are described as "laws of nature."2 Life itself and all living forms are a part of that order, as he demonstrated with evidence from biochemistry and evolution. The chemical elements in organic and inorganic nature are identical," as recent scientific analysis of the chemical constituents of protoplasm had shown.3 Huxley made a point of reminding his readers that the chemicals making up living beings are breaking down and being reformed into new individuals all the time and that people belong to that system of life-and-death: Under whatever disguise it takes refuge, whether fungus or oak, worm or man, the living protoplasm not only ultimately dies and is resolved into its mineral and lifeless constituents, but is always dying, and, strange as the paradox may sound, could not live unless it died.4 Discoveries of Organic Chemists and Evolutionists Complementary: a Very Long Title So It Will Wrap
Since the basic elements in living and non-living things are the same, Huxley had no doubt that life had evolved from non-living matter.5 Thus, the discoveries of organic chemists and evolutionists were complementary to each other. If life is made of the same materials as non- life, the evolution of life becomes more plausible. Similarly, if the whole universe is constantly changing, evolution is universal, and the living and non-living worlds are related in that way, too. Most of Huxley's own work as a scientist, and certainly his most famous and important work as an interpreter of science to non-scientists, focused on evolution, particularly as it affects Homo sapiens. Applicability of Darwin's Argument to Human Beings Huxley accepted Darwin's argument for evolution by natural selection and set out to demonstrate the applicability of the argument to human beings. Man's Place in Nature was published in 1863. Although Huxley had given lectures on the subject of the human relationship to apes in 1860 and 1862, Man's Place was the first book to present the anthropological evidence supporting the theory that humans had evolved from or with other primates. The book is a precise and exhaustive examination of anatomical archaeological, and geological evidence for the evolution of Homo sapiens. It contains three essays, "On the Natural History of the Man-Like Apes," "On the Relation of Man to the Lower Animals," and "On Some Fossil Remains of Man." The first essay traced the history of Western man's discoveries of the "man-like apes," and then anatomically compared the various apes to each other and to humans. It also summarized what was known about their behavior. "On the Relations of Man to Lower Animals" demonstrated human similarities to other animals in order to convince the reader that Homo sapiens is in the order of Primates. An Example of a Heading 4 Subdivision Head One of the major controversies of Darwin scholarship is whether or not there is a "Darwinian revolution." I agree with those who consider that Darwin's insights, arguments and impact are significant enough to warrant the title "revolution." Of course, no intellectual revolution occurs without a context.6 Darwin did not invent the idea of evolution; there were major forces for intellectual change in science in general as well as social change. An Example of a Heading 5 Subdivision Head Nevertheless, most educated people still believed in special creation and the Argument from Design; naturalists expected and hoped that the study of nature would "reveal some meaning in it, something about man's place in nature, man's relation with God." Darwin's study did just that--but hardly what had been expected or hoped for.

CHAPTER 2 SECOND CHAPTER TITLE Ernst Heinrich Haeckel Ernst Haeckel, like Huxley, used science as a weapon against some of the prevalent assumptions and institutions of his day. For Haeckel natural selection was both a description of the origin of species and (because it is a mechanical non-teleological explanation of morphology, which paralleled the mechanical explanations of physics and astronomy) the final proof of the "unity of organic and inorganic nature."7 Haeckel wrote a number of books in an attempt to convert non-scientists to his ideas. Many of these were quickly translated into English and sold very well. The most important of his books for an examination of his anti-anthropocentrism are: The History of Creation (translated in 1873); The Evolution of Man (translated 1879); The Last Link (translated 1898); The Riddle of the Universe (1900); and The Wonders of Life (1905). Haeckel's Anti-Anthropocentrism Haeckel is explicitly anti-anthropocentric. Unlike the other people I am considering in this dissertation, Haeckel defined anthropocentrism and several related words, and used them throughout his works. Anthropocentrism, according to Haeckel, is one form of "anthropism: that powerful and world-wide group of erroneous opinions which opposes the human organism to the whole of the rest of nature, and represents it to be the preordained end of the organic creation, an entity essentially distinct from it, a godlike being."8 He distinguished three varieties of anthropism: anthropocentrism, anthropomorphism, and anthropolatrism.9 Anthropocentrism is the one that concerns us here. "The anthropocentric dogma culminates in the idea that man is the preordained centre and aim of all terrestrial life--or, in a wider sense, of the whole universe."10 Haeckel vigorously attacked this belief in human centrality as untrue and arrogant. He used arguments and evidence based on many sciences, including physiology, paleontology, and astronomy.11 But for the most part he used embryology. Haeckel claimed that he was the first to respond to the challenge inherent in Darwin's Origin of Species to reform the classification of species so as to base it on genetic descent. He attempted to outline a provisional family tree for all animal species in General Morphology in 1866; History of Creation is a popularized version of Morphology.

APPENDICES
APPENDIX A THE DARWINIAN REVOLUTION One of the major controversies of Darwin scholarship is whether or not there is a "Darwinian revolution." I agree with those who consider that Darwin's insights, arguments and impact are significant enough to warrant the title "revolution." Of course, no intellectual revolution occurs without a context.12 Darwin did not invent the idea of evolution; there were major forces for intellectual change in science in general as well as social change. Nevertheless, most educated people still believed in special creation and the Argument from Design; naturalists expected and hoped that the study of nature would "reveal some meaning in it, something about man's place in nature, man's relation with God."13 Darwin's study did just that--but hardly what had been expected or hoped for. Modern scientists and historians of science who argue that there is a "Darwinian revolution" include Michael T. Ghiselin (The Triumph of the Darwinian Method, 1969); Ernst Mayr ("The Nature of the Darwinian Revolution," Science, 1971), David Hull (Darwin and his Critics: the Reception of Darwin's Theory of Evolution by the Scientific Community, 1973); and Howard Gruber, (Darwin on Man: A Psychological Study of Scientific Creativity, 1974). Lewontin, Passmore and Coleman also have interesting comments about Darwin's most important contributions.14 Ghiselin, Mayr and Hull agree in regarding essentialism as the most pervasive intellectual assumption of the nineteenth century to be challenged by Darwin's theory. The clearest definition of essentialism is the one Ghiselin borrows from K. R. Popper's Conjectures and Refutations: "essentialism" is the belief that an unchanging essence, whether an ideal form (neo-Platonism) or inherent within each being (Aristotelian philosophy), is what truly exists. In this framework, a "species" is an actual entity, of which the members are merely representatives.

APPENDIX B THE TABLES Table 1: A Short Caption
first 0.45 10.2 103.5 second 1.67 13.8 200.75 third 0.3 2. 0.5
Table 2: A Longer Caption to Show What Happens When it Wraps Around Both Here and in the List
one Now Then Never two Sometime Someway Somehow three Oops Oh well So much for that

APPENDIX C THE FIGURES

Figure 1: Great Falls with a Long Caption to Show How It Wraps in the Appendix and in the List of Figures

Figure 2: Castle
BIBLIOGRAPHY Branford, Victor. Interpretations and Forecasts: A Study of Survivals and Tendencies in Contemporary Society. London: Duckworth & Co., 1914.
Branford, Victor and Geddes, Patrick. The Coming Polity. The Making of the Future. London: Williams & Norgate, 1919.
Darwin, Charles Robert. The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. 2 vols. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1871.
________. The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. Preface by Konrad Lorenz. London: D. Appleton, 1872; reprint ed., Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965.
________. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. Introduction by Ernst Mayr. London: Murray. 1859; facsimile ed., Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1964.
Geddes, Patrick. Cities in Evolution: An Introduction to the Town Planning Movement and to the Study of Civics. London: Williams & Norgate, 1915; reprint ed., London: Ernest Benn, 1968.
________. Cities in Evolution. Edited by The Outlook Tower Association, Edinburgh, and The Association for Planning and Regional Reconstruction, London. Jaqueline Tyrwhitt, General Editor. London: Williams & Norgate, Ltd., 1949.
________. City Development: A Report to the Carnegie Dunfermline Trust. Introduction by Peter Green. Edinburgh, 1904; reprint ed., New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1973.
________. "Morphology." Encyclopaedia Britannica. 9th ed. (1883) XVI:836-47.
________. Patrick Geddes: Spokesman for Man and the Environment. Edited and Introduction by Marshall Stalley. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1972.
________. "Variation and Selection." Encyclopaedia Britannica. 9th ed. (1888) XXIV:76-85.
Geddes, Patrick and Slater, Gilbert. Ideas at War. The Making of the Future. London: Williams & Norgate, 1917.
Geddes, Patrick and Thomson, John Arthur. Evolution. Home University Library. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1911.
Geddes and Thomson. The Evolution of Sex. London: Walter Scott, 1889.
Haeckel, Ernst. The Evolution of Man: A Popular Exposition of the Principal Points of Human Ontogeny and Phylogeny. 3rd ed. New York: D. Appleton & Co., 1892.
________. The Riddle of the Universe at the Close of the Nineteenth Century. New York: Harper & Brothers.
________. The Wonders of Life: A Popular Study of Biological Philosophy. Translated by Joseph McCabe. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1905.

With Reference to Cortical Magnification

2008-02-19T02:11:00.000-08:00

With Reference to Cortical Magnification and Dipole Source Localisation in the Visual Cortex

Mathematical and computer models are important tools that are available to investigate natural phenomena. They can be used to model many systems. In this thesis, mathematical models are developed, implemented and applied to research involving the human brain and in particular, the human visual cortex. The visual cortex constitutes a relatively large part of the cerebral cortex. It is often used in investigations of the human brain because conclusions regarding the visual cortex can be extended to other regions of the brain. Virtually all information from the visual system is recognised as first being processed by the primary visual cortex and is then passed to other regions of the brain involved in more complex processing.

The primary visual cortex has a retinotopic mapping in that one spot in the retinal visual field maps directly to a spot on the primary visual cortex. However, there is disagreement as to the amount of cortex that is allocated to the representation of central vision or other portions of the visual field. A mathematical formulation of this mapping is presented and mapping functions which transform the surface representing the retina to the surface representing the visual cortex are developed.

If the head is modelled as three concentric spherical shells and neural sources of brain activity are modelled as dipoles, then a mathematical model which incorporates biophysical properties can be used to estimate the location of sources which generate a set of electrical potentials measured on the surface of the scalp. This model is known as dipole source localisation. The forward problem, which is the prediction of a potential distribution due to a given electrical source is implemented, and the inverse problem, which is to determine a dipole source that is the best generator of a given potential distribution is solved in the least squares sense. Monte Carlo simulations and mathematical analysis show that the optimal reference electrode to use in dipole analysis is a weighted version of the common average reference. Monte Carlo simulations are also used to investigate the accuracy of confidence regions surrounding the estimated dipole parameters.

Subsequently, a methodology for modelling a region of cortex from magnetic resonance images is developed. This methodology is applied to the calcarine fissure and surrounding grey matter to produce a three dimensional surface reconstruction of the visual cortex. This model is used to provide anatomical constraints in the dipole source localisation model. These models are then applied to visual evoked potential data obtained from an experiment which uses a chromatic grating stimulus. Results reveal that these mathematical and computer models, combined with imaging and experimental approaches, elicit new information and improved results in investigations of the human brain.

I'm Sure About This-Easy Making free dollar

2008-02-19T01:47:00.000-08:00

A Complete System For Making Money Reading Emails

Welcome to my lens. Here I will provide a step by step system for making money with paid to read email programs. I will show you how to set everything up and what programs to join and how to build your income. For best results I recommend reading this page carefully and following the plan I provide.

Step 1, Preparing To Deal With Emails

With a paid to read email business there will be a lot of email, that is just something that has to be dealt with. There are three important things you can do to help manage all the emails.

First of all most of the programs I will be listing here give you the option when signing up to send all your paid emails to the inbox in your account instead of actually sending you an email. I highly recommend you choose this option when it is available. You have to login to read emails but it will save your own email box from getting clogged up.

Secondly for the programs that don't offer inbox emails I recommend getting a separate free email account with yahoo just for your paid emails. You don't have to do this but it is just a good idea if you don't like getting a lot of email in your regular account.

Finally if you want fewer emails then simply choose less subjects of interest when signing up for each site.

Step 2, Get A E-gold Account

If you don't already have a e-gold account then you will need one. This is because most of the get paid to read email programs will not pay by check but will pay with e-gold. You can get a free e-gold account here. with e-gold you dont need to have credit card.

Step 3, Join Programs

The next thing to do is to join the programs through the banners below. These are all solid programs that pay their members. If you are already a member of one or more of the programs do not join those because these sites generally don't tolerate multiple accounts. Remember when joining to choose your site inbox to recieve mails in the programs that offer that service. After you join keep reading and I will show you exactly how to build up your income with these programs.

Step 4, Read Some Emails Daily

It is important once you join the programs to actually read some of the emails. You don't need to read all of them. You will need to read some though to remain a active member and be able to earn on your referrals which I will be showing you how to get.

I personally try to read at least half of all my emails. If I am short on time I will read less but I recommend reading a minmum of 1/4 of your emails to remain an active member in good standing.

It is also important to read the emails in each site every day because the paid links will sometimes expire. If you want to take a break for a few days from reading emails then you can put your accounts in vacation mode.

Step 5, Keep Good Records

It is important to keep good records for your paid to read email business. You need to write down all your expenses including upgrades and advertising as well as your income from the programs.

You will need a notebook at least for this. I recommend using a ledger or program such as quickbooks.

Step 6, Be Patient And Stay With It

Making money from paid to read email programs takes time. You won't see any money instantly. Depending on how aggressively you promote and build referrals you will start to see some income in 1 to 2 months. It will take 6 months to a year to build a good income from this. The most important thing is to not quit and keep working at it. If u wanna change with rupiah, change your E-Gold with money at Indochanger.

I'm Sure.. you can making free dollar daily..

Predicting the Detection Rates of Transiting Hot Jupiters and Very Hot Jupiters in Wide-field Photometric Surveys

2008-02-19T01:36:00.000-08:00

abstraks:

Seven years after the first sighting of a transiting planet around HD209458, it now appears that early predictions of the detection rate of wide-field photometric surveys substantially overestimated the rate at which extrasolar transiting planets have actually been seen. In this paper, we use a $\chi^2$ test to develop a mathematical formalism that allows for a more accurate prediction of the number of transit detections that a given photometric survey should see. We have taken into account such factors as the frequency of gas giants around main sequence stars, the probability of transits occurring, stellar density changes from galactic structure, and the effects of interstellar extinction. We then apply our method to the Trans-Atlantic Exoplanet Survey (TrES), a currently ongoing ground-based search for transiting planets, and the space-based Kepler mission, due to launch in 2008. For both surveys, we offer a prediction for the total number of hot Jupiters and very hot Jupiters that each can expect to detect, as well as the expected distribution of the detections across a number of parameters.

1. Introduction
Since the first detection of a planetary-mass object in 1989 (Latham et al. 1989) and
the explicit detection six years later of a Jupiter-sized planet in orbit about 51 Peg (Mayor
& Queloz 1995), the number of known extrasolar planets has ballooned to almost 190. By
any standard of measure, these discoveries have dramatically altered our conception of the
universe. Indeed, until the discovery of the planet around 51 Peg, one could plausibly argue
that planet formation was rare, and that our Solar System was one of a few (if not the
only) planetary systems in the galaxy. Instead, we are confronted with the prospect that planetary formation is a relatively routine occurrence during the formation of stars; with
all that this implies about the chances of finding a world similar to Earth elsewhere in the
cosmos.

In addition to confirming the frequency of planetary systems, the properties displayed
by the discovered extrasolar planets have forced a rethinking of modern planet formation
and dynamical interaction theories. Specifically, the presence of large numbers of jovian
planets orbiting very close to their parent stars (so called “hot Jupiters”) have necessitated
the creation of new models of planetary migration that allow jovian-worlds formed outside
the “snow-line” to spiral in closer to their parent star (Lin et al. 1996; Ward 1997).
To date, there are three reliable ways by which extrasolar planets have been detected.
The first is the Radial Velocity (RV) method, which uses the Doppler shift of observed
stellar spectra to look for periodic variations in the target star’s radial velocity. By then
determining the mass of stellar target (or otherwise estimating it from models), the observed
radial velocity curve and velocity semi-amplitude can then be used to directly calculate the
inclination-dependent mass (M sin i) of the companion object. While this gives only the
minimum mass of these objects, the large number of detections of systems whose unseen
companion has a mass on the order of 1MJup sin i statistically ensures that the majority of
these are planetary bodies.

Currently, the state of the art in RV surveys is the High Accuracy Radial Velocity
Planet Searcher (HARPS) spectrometer at the La Silla Observatory in Chile. Capable
of radial velocity measurements precise to under 1 ms?1 for extended periods of time, it is able to detect planets with masses on the order of 3 to 4M© in a wide range of
orbits. Unfortunately, smaller planets will be increasingly difficult to detect using RV
methods. Stellar variability, in the form of acoustic oscillation modes and granulations on
the photosphere, makes more precise spectroscopic radial velocity measurements harder to
acquire. However, it may be possible to surmount this obstacle (as in the case of the system
mentioned in the previous footnote) through extensive knowledge of the seismology of the
the target star and long integration times that allow the stellar variability to average out.
Another technique for detecting extrasolar planets is microlensing surveys. Microlensing
of a star occurs when a massive object passes through the line of sight of the observer to the
star. The gravity of the object acts as a lens on the light emitted by the star, which causes
the star to become momentarily brighter as more light is directed towards the observer.
The most well known microlensing survey is the Optical Gravitational Lensing Experiment
(OGLE), which was originally conceived as a narrow-field search for distant microlensing
events caused by dark matter. It was quickly realized, however, that the massive amount
of photometry generated by OGLE was also conducive to searching for planet-induced
microlensing. Indeed, in the last two years, four planets have been discovered by monitoring
microlensing events detected by the OGLE collaboration: OGLE-2003-BLG-235 (Bond et
al. 2004), OGLE-2005-BLG-071 (Udalski et al. 2005), OGLE-2005-BLG-390 (Beaulieu et
al. 2006), and OGLE-2005-BLG-169 (Gould et al. 2006a).

The third method by which extrasolar planets have been discovered is the Transit
Detection technique, which looks for the periodic dimming of a target star that occurs
when an orbiting planet passes in front of the stellar disk. This requires a very specific set
of orbital characteristics to yield a transit visible from Earth (the orbital plane has to be
aligned to within a few degrees of the line of sight), and therefore transiting planets are
expected to be a rarer sight than planets detectable through RV observations. Nevertheless, a transiting extrasolar planet offers the opportunity to not only determine the mass of
that planet (assuming that follow-up RV work is feasible) since the i in M sin i is now
measurable, but also the planetary radius. This allows for a deeper understanding of
not only the composition of extrasolar planets, but also the dynamics of the interiors of
jovian worlds. Additionally, and unlike RV surveys, transiting planets should be readably
detectable down to 1R© and beyond, even for relatively long periods. NASA’s Kepler
mission, which is presently scheduled for launch in the fall of 2008, will consist of a
space-based telescope whose primary mission is to search for transiting planets of just this
size within the habitable zones of main-sequence stars.

The first transiting planet was discovered around HD209458 in late 1999. It was
initially identified as an extremely short-period planetary system by RV measurements in
the spring of that year; it was its short (3.5 day) period and the relative brightness of the
parent star (mV = 7.65) that prompted photometric observations of HD209458 in the hope
that the orbital geometry was sufficient for an observable transit (Charbonneau et al. 2000;
Henry et al. 2000). Since that time, eight more transiting planets have been discovered.
Two of them, HD189733b (Bouchy et al. 2005b) and HD149026b (Sato et al. 2005), were
identified first by spectroscopic RV surveys; similar to how HD209458b was found. Five of
the known transiting extrasolar planets were discovered in the OGLE data sets,2 proving
the efficacy of that project to detect not only microlensing planets, but transits as well.
Unfortunately, because OGLE concentrates its observations on relatively faint (mV ¼ 16)
stars, follow-up spectroscopic observation of the OGLE planets is extremely difficult and
has only been done for a portion of the OGLE planets. In the end, only one transiting planet, TrES-1 (Alonso et al. 2004), has been detected

by a photometric survey specifically designed to find planets around bright stars that allow
for spectroscopic follow-up, despite there being over 20 such searches currently underway.
This dearth of results is in stark contrast to the general expectation following the discovery
of HD209458b that wide-field photometric transit surveys would discover literally thousands
of transiting extrasolar planets (Horne 2003).

The reasons for the low number of transit detections relative to expectations are varied
and complex. Partly, this is because the frequency of planets in close orbits about their
parent stars (the planets most likely to transit) is much lower than was originally expected.
Recent examinations of the results from the OGLE-III field by Gould et al. (2006b) indicate
that the frequency of short-period jovian-worlds is on the order of 1
400 , not 1
100 as is often
assumed from looking at RV surveys. They point out that most spectroscopic planet
searches are usually intentionally biased by the planet-hunting observer towards targeting
metal-rich stars, which are expected to have more planets than the average solar-metallicity
star.

Furthermore, many of the older estimates for the number of expected detections
assumed that all the stars with a photometric precision of less than 1% in a given field
would allow for successful detections, provided the orbital geometry yielded a transit (itself
a roughly 10% chance). However, not all of the stars in a field are on the main-sequence.
Evolved stars constitute a non-negligible population that are capable of allowing precise
photometric measurements, but any planets in orbit around such stars are beyond the
detectable reach of present-day photometric surveys.

Also, further reflection reveals that the photometric precision afforded by a star may
not be the proper metric by which to judge the detection abilities of a transit survey. After
all, one may observe three transits of a star with a precision of 1%, but if one only has three in-transit data points on a 2% deep transit, then the later identification of that event
as a transit will be difficult to say the least. Therefore, instead of photometric precision, a
better detection metric is the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio of a transit.

In this paper, we use the S/N of transits to statistically calculate the number of
hot-Jupiters (HJs) and very hot-Jupiters (VHJs) that a given transiting planet survey
should be able to detect. We account for factors such as the low frequency of short period
jovian planets, variations in stellar density due to galactic structure, and extinction due to
interstellar dust. We also realistically account for the number of main-sequence stars that
will be in a given field. We restrict ourselves to HJs and VHJs because their short periods
(1-5 days) dramatically increase not only their probability of transiting their parent star,
but also the probability that they will be observed in transit within a reasonable amount
of time by a survey (the so-called “window probability”). It should be noted, however,
that our methods are easily expanded to consider a wider set of possible planets. We first
describe the mathematical formalism with which we have chosen to address this problem,
and then move on to discuss our specific assumptions and our choices for fixed fiducial
parameters. We then offer our own predictions for the detection rate of a ground-based
(TrES) and a space-based photometric survey (Kepler), and compare these to either the
actual detection rates (for TrES) or the detection rates proposed elsewhere (for Kepler).

Online Dating Services - Precautions to be taken

2008-02-17T20:27:00.000-08:00

Many men and women are left high and dry without a soul to share their feelings. The nuclear family has resulted in many elderly people left as singles. The increase in the frequency of divorce has created a vacuum in the lives of many a people. The online dating services has come in handy for these needy people to find out their soul mates. Of late the online dating sites have acquired a prominent place among the internet activities.

Online dating can be a fun. Searching through thousands and thousands of dating profiles is really an interesting aspect. The search has all its emotions and anxieties. But don't neglect the safety aspect of online dating. Apply common sense when you try to hook up with a mate. There are some precautions to be taken before starting to find out your perfect match

Computer Safety

Bombarding your computer with virus infected files while browsing is a common problem now. The real intention of your dating partner may not be for a relationship. The date mate might be nursing some other sinister intentions. You need to have a firewall and antivirus protection for your email and computer. These computer protection services are offered at free of cost.

Protect yourself.

Not all dating sites are a secured place to interact online. Protect your self by choosing the perfect dating sites which are functioning on high ethical notes. How to choose a reputable dating site? The referrals you can get from your friends and colleagues will help you to zero in on the correct dating site. Don't choose the sight on mere recommendations. After having a list of two or three online dating sites, which are mostly recommended by your friends, start your own analyses. Browse through the sites and take note of their URLs, the regulations, the fee structure, complete contact information and privacy assurance. Compare the sites. Try only those dating sites which you feel, will be safer for online interaction.

Protection To be Taken While Interacting

Hastiness should be avoided in selecting the online relationship. Enough time should be given to find out your soul mate and to grow the online relationship. Frequent interactions before fixing the virtual meeting, help to know each other well. It will enhance the understanding and trust. Arrange for a virtual meeting only when you feel it is time to have it. Avoiding the virtual meetings can be considered as an abuse. Because it involves one's self respect. If this basic courtesy is not followed then it is time to move on. On the other side , the virtual meeting should not be pushed through. Understanding each other and creation of mutual trust will take some time. So pushing for a virtual meeting by one of you will create bad vibes. Take time to build the relationship.

Respecting Privacy

The sharing phase takes a center stage after developing your online relationship to a confident level. You may share your email ID and photos. Enter this sharing stage after carefully evolving your partners integrity. As online dating relationship is built on mutual trust, sharing personal information with others is a big abuse. If your partner is of not good intentions, it will lead to unnecessary troubles. Respecting each other's privacy is a must and there should not be any compromise in this count.

Author Information:Share your fun times and your likes and dislikes. Send greeting cards on special occasions. There are great online sources to share your photos and videos. As said earlier don't rush through in selecting your online dating partner. Never pretend to be bold in your selection of online date and trap yourself into avoidable troubles. Online dating is a fun as well as an emotional one. Make your dating days happier with a relationship which is built on mutual respect and trust
Online Dating Sites

Why An Atheist Can Believe In God

2008-02-17T19:56:00.000-08:00

Contrary to what many believe, many atheist - if not most - would never say "God doesn't exist." Unfortunately, many dictionaries also have definitions like "Denial of the existence of God," which is a misrepresentation. In fact, if once you understand what atheism really means, you'll see why an atheist can believe in God. Here are the three basic beliefs that lead one to be an atheist:

1. Evidence and experience should be the basis for any belief.

2. An assertion should be proven by the person or persons who make it.

3. The case for God has not been proven.

With no experience to convince me, and no proof of the existence of God, I don't have a reason to believe in the existence of he or she or it. But I can't say he doesn't exist, since I can't prove this belief either. In fact, why would an atheist waste his time trying to prove a concept as nebulous as God can't or doesn't exist? Suppose I told you that a blue snake in the sky ruled the universe. If all I had for evidence was a some speculative story-book, you wouldn't believe me would you? No?

That would make you an "aserpentist," by the way. Now, would you start gathering evidence to "prove" that no invisible blue snake was up there? No. As the maker of the assertion, I would have the obligation to prove it did exist. You would be entirely justified in dropping and ignoring the whole matter until given some reason to look at it again.

Atheism is simply non-belief due to unconvincing evidence.

Where does this leave agnostics then? An honest classification would be as a type of atheist, right? If a person won't say he believes in God, he is atheistic. Although there is confusion in the terms, sometimes those who call themselves agnostics are just afraid of the other "A" word label. "Agnostics" are more accepted in society after all.

Now, since words refer to something - even if it is only to ideas - we can say that God exists as an idea, and a powerful one. Perhaps some atheists even like various versions of this idea (I like "the force" from the movie "Star Wars.") The various concepts of gods are often the cause of wars and horrible crimes, but they can also be uplifting concepts, or at least useful in some way.

I refer to these ideas as "useful lies." Regardless of their truth or falsity, some ideas can be beneficial as "operating principles" or "guides to life." Consider the idea that everything happens for a reason, for example. It doesn't have to be true to be useful, since it certainly can get you looking for the lessons and other values to be found in bad scenarios.

An atheist could say then, that a god exists as a common belief, or "useful lie," and that as such, he may even do some good. But more than that, since an atheist simply hasn't been convinced, he can believe in a God in heaven too. For this, he just needs God to come down and shakes his hand, or otherwise make his presence known.

Why I Believe Abortion Should Be Legal, Safe, and Rare

2008-02-17T19:54:00.000-08:00

I have always been a supporter of a woman's right to choose. It is not simply that I am a supporter of abortion. I have never had an abortion and don't think I could. However, I should have the right to make that decision myself -- not have it forced on me. My position on abortion is really very simple -- it should be legal, safe and rare.

The most important reason for my belief that abortion should be legal and safe is very closely tied to women's rights. A society that controls and shackles women's freedom cannot be wholly free. I do believe the issue is one of power and control -- of domination -- over women. If men could become pregnant abortion would not even be an issue. Pregnancy and child care have long been ways that men have controlled and dominated women as well as restricted their education and professional lives. When abortion is outlawed or restricted by laws then it becomes even more of an issue of control and discrimination -- aimed at the lower classes. We know that abortion will never disappear entirely, at least until universal fail-safe birth control exists, and that people of means will be able to obtain a safe abortion here or abroad. Outlawing abortion simply ensures that the poor and disadvantaged will have no safe alternative.

I have never understood why so many people put so much time, money and effort into outlawing abortion when spending that same time, money and effort on helping women without choices and helping the many abused and neglected children we already have would do far more to prevent abortions than any law ever could. Contrary to many abortion foes belief, I don't believe abortion is an easy choice for most women -- and for those it is an easy choice it is probably better they not be given responsibility for the health and welfare of a fetus or child. Many women who choose to have an abortion feel they have no alternative. Why not work to truly help those women so they do have choices and options? Until our society truly takes its responsibility to the children already born so we have no child suffering starvation, poverty, neglect, and abuse -- and all our children are given every opportunity for a quality education and future then I don't want to see time and resources devoted to the prevention of abortion. Think of helping these disadvantaged women and children as preventing the abortions of tomorrow. Simply outlawing abortion will not solve the root problem, instead it will drive those in need of an abortion into back alleys, but if you can solve the problems of abuse and poverty then there will be fewer unwanted pregnancies and fewer abortions.

Another important reason I believe the choice should be left up to the woman in question is that I believe the decision to reproduce has to be made willingly and only by the person involved. Pregnancy and child birth is a physical ordeal that can have a lifelong impact on a woman's mental and physical health and well being. In addition, the decision to raise a child has tremendous personal, professional, and financial repercussions. While it takes two to make a baby, all too often in the case of an unplanned pregnancy it is the woman who is left to cope alone. It is really quite simple. I believe that if I am going to undergo a process that effects my physical and mental well being as well as my financial and professional future then I should be able to make the decision myself. I am a mother and I love my child more than anything, but my pregnancy and child birth were difficult and life threatening. I am not sure if I could have survived either without the support of my husband, family, friends, and co-workers. I know this group has been even more important to me while raising my child. I am an educated professional with a good job and a good support system. I cannot imagine how people with fewer resources do it. We are failing as a society when we force so many to do so.

If we want a society that is truly free and truly responsible for all its members then abortion must be legal and safe. If abortion foes truly want to stop abortions then they should work on addressing the root causes of abortion -- poverty, abuse, and lack of opportunity. The more we do to give women freedom of choice and control over their lives then the rarer abortion will be. Then everyone wins.

Society and Culture: It Is Better to Give Than Receive—No Really!

2008-02-17T19:48:00.000-08:00

As the Roman calendar welcomes 2008, appeals for charitable contributions abound. Churches, charities and civic causes dependent on donors will build their budgets and project their programs for the year ahead based on the generosity of givers within our society and culture.

Some would simply suggest that this is the season for giving, but few can explain the reason for giving. Have you ever wondered who gives, who doesn’t and why the difference? If so, you’ll be interested to know that Professor Brooks, has, as they say, done the math!

Arthur C. Brooks, professor of public administration at Syracuse University’s Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs has studied donor demographics for over a decade. His book, Who Really Cares, published in December 2006, presents empirical evidence of traits that predict and promote philanthropy.

Brooks defines charity broadly as “voluntary, beneficial, ‘affectionate’ acts that have the ability to transform the giver and receiver in unique and important ways.” Generosity, he declares, is mutually beneficial for the needy and the nurturing.

He readily acknowledges that the United States is a remarkably charitable nation by all reasonable standards. “The Giving U.S.A. Foundation estimates that Americans donated nearly $300 billion to charity in 2006—more than the gross domestic product (the annualized value of goods and services produced within a nation) of all but 33 countries in the world.”

However, he has discovered that giving is a way of life for some and woefully absent among others in our society and culture. He describes two distinct Americas—Charitable America and Selfish America. The givers of Charitable America are more likely to give both formally and informally to sacred and secular causes, volunteer their time for church and charitable institutions, donate blood, etc., than their nongiving neighbors.

“Although 225 million Americans give away money each year, the other 75 million never give to any causes, charities, or churches. Further, 130 million Americans never volunteer their time.”

Professor Brooks explains that race, gender, ethnicity and age are unable to help us understand the causes of charitable giving. These innate characteristics don’t address the reasons why people in our society either give or choose not to give of their time and money. Even income and wealth do not tell the whole story. Reminiscent of how Jesus was impressed by the willingness of the widow to offer her meager mite, Brooks calls our attention to the generous giving of the working poor families in America.

“The difference between givers and nongivers is found in their beliefs and behaviors. Four distinct forces emerge from the evidence that appear primarily responsible for making people charitable. These forces are religion, skepticism about the government in economic life, strong families, and personal entrepreneurism.”

If you actively attend a house of worship, believe that you and not the government are your brother’s keeper, have grown up in a home watching your parents volunteer and give to church and community and work for a living, then you are part of Charitable America. Remove any one of these characteristics common to givers, and you start the process of relocating to a residence in Selfish America.

Giving is good for those getting the helping hand, but does giving benefit the benefactor? Citing a correlation between charity and concepts of personal well-being, Brooks concludes, “. . . happiness, health, and income coexist in a self-reinforcing cycle with charity: Happy, healthy, successful, opportunity-oriented people are most likely to give and to volunteer. At the same time, charitable people are more likely than uncharitable people to be happy, healthy, and financially prosperous. Yes, prosperous people are more likely to give to charity—but charity can also make them prosperous and more likely to make even more charitable contributions.”

An ancient adage of the Judeo-Christian ethic advises that “It is more blessed to give than to receive” (Acts 20:35). Professor Brook’s synthesis of the latest social surveys provides powerful support for this premise. Social science and sacred Scripture coalesce to confirm the tangible benefits to a compassionate community that makes a genuine and generous effort to collectively “love one’s neighbor as oneself.”

“But the value of charity is not limited to those who receive the services that giving makes possible,” he says. “The evidence in this book shows that charity unleashes enormous benefits not only to the givers themselves but also to their families, communities, and the nation. Everyone understands that charitable organizations created value by providing for the needy. What many organizations misunderstand is who the “needy” truly are. In addition to those in need of food, shelter, education, the needy are also those who need to give to attain their full potential in happiness, health, and material prosperity—which is every one of us.”

Perhaps it is better to give than receive—no, really!

Kill the Murder and do not take Compensation in Bible versus Quran

2008-02-17T19:43:00.000-08:00

By Dr. Ibrahim Khalil [ 03/02/2008 ]
[ viewed 27 times ]

Kill the murder in the Bible
And Never Ever take compensation
The Lord commands to kill the murder in ten verses in the Bible. In verse, Numbers 35:31, the Lord Forbids to take any compensation or satisfaction for the life of a murderer, which is guilty of death: but he shall be surely put to death.
On the contrary, taking compensation is allowed in the Noble Quran!
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Kill the murder in the Bible:

Leviticus 24:17, 21 (King James Version)

17 And he that killeth any man shall surely be put to death.
21 And he that killeth a beast, he shall restore it: and he that killeth a man, he shall be put to death.

Leviticus 27:29 (King James Version)

29 None devoted, which shall be devoted of men, shall be redeemed; but shall surely be put to death.
Numbers 35:16-19, 21 and 30 (King James Version)
16 And if he smite him with an instrument of iron, so that he die, he is a murderer: the murderer shall surely be put to death.
17And if he smite him with throwing a stone, wherewith he may die, and he die, he is a murderer: the murderer shall surely be put to death.
18Or if he smite him with an hand weapon of wood, wherewith he may die, and he die, he is a murderer: the murderer shall surely be put to death.
19The revenger of blood himself shall slay the murderer: when he meeteth him, he shall slay him.
21 Or in enmity smite him with his hand, that he die: he that smote him shall surely be put to death; for he is a murderer: the revenger of blood shall slay the murderer, when he meeteth him.
30 Whoso killeth any person, the murderer shall be put to death by the mouth of witnesses: but one witness shall not testify against any person to cause him to die.
--------------------
Kill the murder and do not take compensation:

Numbers 35:31
31 Moreover ye shall take no satisfaction for the life of a murderer, which is guilty of death: but he shall be surely put to death.

=====================================

Kill the murder in the Noble Quran
And you can take compensation

Verse 2:178 says that:

O you who believe
Retaliation is prescribed for you in the matter of the murdered ones;
The freeman for the freeman, a freeman who premeditatedly kills another freeman, and the slave for the slave, a slave who premeditatedly kills another,
And the female for the female, a female who premeditatedly kills another,
And for him who is forgiven somewhat by his brother,
Whoever forgives the killing and takes instead blood money,
Prosecution according to usage
Allah commands the person who asks for blood money to claim this money according to practiced usage:
And payment unto him, the person who is required to pay blood money is commanded to give the custodians of the murdered person what is due to them, in kindness without the need to go to court or making it difficult for them.
This pardon is alleviation, appeasement and a mercy from your Lord towards the killer such that he is not killed.
He who transgresses after this, after taking the blood money and kills the murderer will have a painful doom; he shall be killed and will not be forgiven or allowed to pay blood money.
===================

Verse 2:178 in different translations:

QARIB:
Believers, retaliation are decreed for you concerning the killed. A free (man) for a free (man), a slave for a slave, and a female for a female. He who is pardoned by his brother, let the ensuing be with kindness, and let the payment be with generosity. This is alleviation from your lord and mercy. He who transgresses thereafter shall have a painful punishment.

SHAKIR:
O you who believe! retaliation is prescribed for you in the matter of the slain, the free for the free, and the slave for the slave, and the female for the female, but if any remission is made to any one by his (aggrieved) brother, then prosecution (for the blood wit) should be made according to usage, and payment should be made to him in a good manner; this is an alleviation from your lord and a mercy; so whoever exceeds the limit after this he shall have a painful chastisement

PICKTHAL:
O ye who believe! retaliation is prescribed for you in the matter of the murdered; the freeman for the freeman, and the slave for the slave, and the female for the female. and for him who is forgiven somewhat by his (injured) brother, prosecution according to usage and payment unto him in kindness. this is an alleviation and a mercy from your lord. he who transgresseth after this will have a painful doom.

YUSUFALI:
O ye who believe! the law of equality is prescribed to you in cases of murder: the free for the free, the slave for the slave, the woman for the woman. But if any remission is made by the brother of the slain, then grant any reasonable demand, and compensate him with handsome gratitude, this is a concession and a mercy from your lord. After this whoever exceeds the limits shall be in grave penalty.
-------------------------------

What if the Quran was the Book which commands to kill all of these many kinds of people? Also, the Lord in the Bible forbids taking compensation from the murder to save his life and insists to kill the murder. On the other hand, the Noble Quran allows taking compensation from the murder to save his life!
What the Western Media would have to say in such case?
=========

Back to the main issue of my series of articles; this is my question to you smart readers: "Is the Quran quoted from the Bible?"

About the author:
Professor Dr. Ibrahim Khalil
Prof. of Clinical and Chemical Pathology,
Head of Clinical Microbiology and Infection Control Unit,
Ain-Shams University., Egypt.
And, President of The Egyptian Society of Inventors.
Member of the Egyptian union of Writers

Article Source: http://www.Free-Articles-Zone.com

New Cognitive Assessment for Schizophrenia Patients

2008-02-17T19:30:00.000-08:00

A new neuropsychological test battery for cognitive dysfunctionin schizophrenia has been developed. The Measurement and TreatmentResearch to Improve Cognition in Schizophrenia (MATRICS) Initiativewas funded by the National Institute of Mental Health and produceda battery of tests that has been accepted by the Food and DrugAdministration (FDA) for evaluations of cognition-enhancingtreatments for schizophrenia. Nuechterlein et al. (p. 203) outlinethe nomination of candidate instruments for the MATRICS ConsensusCognitive Battery and subsequent testing at five U.S. sites.The resulting final battery comprises 10 tests and can be administeredin about an hour. Kern et al. (p. 214) explain the "co-norming"process. Age and gender had significant effects on the scores,and correction for these variables is recommended. Green etal. (p. 221) relate the search for an additional, co-primarytest that would meet the FDA’s requirement for a measurerelevant to patient functioning. Two tests of functional capacityand two interview-based measures of cognition were tested. TheFDA indicated that any of the four tests would be acceptablein a clinical trial of a new drug to enhance cognitive functionin schizophrenia. Philip Harvey and Barbara Cornblatt discussthese articles in an editorial on p. 163.

White Matter Lesions and Treatment Outcome in Late-Life Depression

Depressed elderly patients who remained symptomatic after antidepressanttreatment had abnormalities of white matter in several brainregions implicated in depression. Alexopoulos et al. (p. 238)report a comparison using diffusion tensor imaging, which providesinformation about the integrity of white matter, the infrastructurefor communication between neurons. Compared to 25 elderly patientswhose depression responded to escitalopram, the 23 without remissionhad lower values in the identified regions. These areas of theprefrontal cortex, striatum, and limbic system are believedto contribute to a reciprocal network important in the physiologyand treatment of depression. Anand Kumar and Olusola Ajilorecomment on this report in an editorial on p. 166.

Cross-Cultural Similarity of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder in Japan

Evidence that biological mechanisms contribute to obsessive-compulsivedisorder (OCD) is provided by similarity between the symptomsof Japanese patients and those previously found in Western patients.Matsunaga et al. (CME, p. 251) found that the obsessions andcompulsions of 343 Japanese patients fell largely along fourdimensions: cleanliness/washing, hoarding, symmetry/orderingand repeating, and aggressive/checking. The symmetry dimensionwas associated with earlier onset and greater severity. Boththe symmetry and hoarding dimensions were related to worse functioningand poorer response to treatment. These symptom dimensions andrelationships to clinical variables are consistent with thosereported earlier for Western countries. An editorial by StefanoPallanti on p. 169 describes cultural influences on symptoms.

Assessment and Treatment of Potentially Violent Patients

Two clinical features in this issue provide expert advice onthe assessment and treatment of potentially violent patients.In the first article (p. 190), Nora K. McNamara and Robert L.Findling discuss the assessment and treatment of a 16-year-oldboy who is becoming violent. "Guns, Adolescents, and MentalIllness" is part of the Journal’s Treatment in Psychiatryseries. This series examines the evidence-based treatment fora difficult clinical problem that is outlined in a brief patientvignette. In the second article (p. 195), Dale E. McNeil etal. present a new method to educate trainees on the assessmentof violence in their article entitled "Impact of Clinical Trainingon Violence Risk Assessment," the first of a new series, Educationin Psychiatry. Like the Treatment series, the Education seriesbegins with a vignette of a clinical problem, in this instancethe evaluation of an angry 46-year-old man, but then discusseshow to teach psychiatry residents and other trainees to addressthe problem. The two series are further described in an Editor’sNote, (p. 176).

Spring Wheat Response to Tillage and Nitrogen Fertilization in Rotation with Sunflower and Winter Wheat

2008-02-17T19:24:00.000-08:00

Spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is a major crop in the northernGreat Plains that is generally grown following a 21-mo fallowperiod. A 12-yr study was conducted to determine the effectsof tillage system [conventional-till (CT), minimum-till (MT),and no-till (NT)], N fertilizer rate (34, 67, and 101 kg N ha^-1),and cultivar (Butte86 and Stoa) on spring wheat yields withina dryland spring wheat (SW)–winter wheat (WW)–sunflower(Helianthus annuus L.) (SF) rotation. Grain yield responsesvaried with tillage system, N fertilizer rate, cultivar, andyear as indicated by significant tillage x N rate x year andN rate x cultivar x year interactions. In years with >260 mmtotal plant available water (TPAW) but <400> yields were greater than those with CT at the highest N rate,with similar trends at the medium and low N rates. When TPAWexceeded 400 mm, grain yields for CT were generally greaterthan for NT at the medium N rates. The greatest 12-yr averagegrain yield (1727 kg ha^-1) was obtained with NT and applicationof 101 kg N ha^-1. Grain yields were lowest during years whenTPAW was <300> N treatments. Cultivars responded similarly to N fertilizationin years with >300 mm TPAW, with Butte86 yielding more thanStoa in 6 out of the 12 yr. Soil NO₃–N levels increasedin the root zone following three consecutive drought years,but had declined to initial year levels by the end of the study.These results indicate that farmers in the northern Great Plainscan produce SW following SF in annual cropping systems thatdo not include a fallow period, particularly if NT or MT systemsare used with adequate N fertilization.

Abbreviations: CT, conventional-till • MT, minimum-till • NT, no-till • PAW, plant-available water • SW, spring wheat • TPAW, total plant-available water • WW, winter wheat • SF, sunflower

INTRODUCTION

IN the semi-arid northern Great Plains, plant-available water(PAW) and soil erosion are major factors limiting agriculturalproduction. Therefore, farmers need to manage crop residuesand tillage to control soil erosion and effectively store anduse the limited precipitation received for crop production.No-till and minimum-till systems are effective steps in efficientlysaving more precipitation for crop production (Aase and Schaefer,1996; Halvorson, 1990b; Peterson et al., 1996; Tanaka and Anderson,1997).

The traditional crop–fallow system of farming uses water/precipitationinefficiently as evidenced by the development of dryland saline-seepsin the northern Great Plains (Halvorson and Black, 1974). Thesolution to the saline-seep problem is to crop more intensivelywith efficient use of precipitation for crop production (Halvorson, 1990a).Saline-seep areas have been controlled and returnedto crop production by growing alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) and/orby annual cropping of the seep recharge area (Halvorson, 1984;Halvorson and Reule, 1980).

Deibert et al. (1986) suggested that farmers in the northernGreat Plains need to use more continuous cropping and less crop–fallowto attain more efficient use of limited water supplies. Peterson et al. (1996)and McGee et al. (1997) point out that MT andNT fallow systems have a high percentage of the soil water inthe profile recharged by the first spring following harvest.Continuing the fallow period for an additional 5 to 12 mo isvery inefficient and costly. Therefore, cropping more intensivelythan crop–fallow is needed to efficiently use the waterstored by NT and MT systems. Improved precipitation-storageefficiency with MT and NT allows producers the option of croppingmore intensively than with crop–fallow (Halvorson andReule, 1994; Peterson et al., 1996). Black et al. (1981) reportedmore efficient water use with more intensive cropping systems.Halvorson and Black (1985) reported crop yields that were generally>80% of 2-yr SW–fallow yields when grown in an annualcropping system with adequate N and P fertilization. Aase and Reitz (1989)and Aase and Schaefer (1996) reported that annuallycropped SW with NT was more profitable and productive than SW–fallowin a 356 mm precipitation zone in northeast Montana.

Hall and Cholick (1989) reported varying responses of SW cultivarsto tillage systems and a need to select cultivars for use underNT conditions. Most SW cultivars developed for use in the northernGreat Plains have been developed using crop–fallow systemsand low residue, CT environments.

Information is limited on the successes of more intensive drylandcropping systems in the northern Great Plains that include MTand NT management systems and a deep rooted crop, such as SF,in the rotation. In addition to more efficient water use, moreintensive MT and NT cropping systems have the potential to bemore profitable (Dhuyvetter et al., 1996) and reduce soil erosionpotential (Merrill et al., 1999). This study was undertakento determine the effects of tillage system (CT, MT, NT), N fertilizerrate (34, 67, and 101 kg N ha^-1), and cultivar (Butte86 andStoa) on SW grain yields within a dryland SW–WW–SFrotation.

Methods and materials
The study was initiated in 1984 on a Temvik–Wilton siltloam soil (fine-silty, mixed, superactive, frigid Typic andPachic Haplustolls) located near Mandan, ND. Surface soil pHwas 6.4 , soil organic carbon was 21.4 g kg^-1, and soil testP was 20 to 26 mg kg^-1 in the spring of 1984 (Black and Tanaka, 1997).Data collection was from 1985 through 1996. An annualcropping rotation, SW–WW–SF, was managed under threetillage systems, CT, MT, and NT (Halvorson et al., 1999a, b).Nitrogen fertilizer was applied in early spring each year asa broadcast application of NH₄NO₃ at rates of 34, 67, and 101kg N ha^-1, except for 1991 and 1992 when no N was applied becauseof a build-up of residual soil NO₃–N due to drought conditionsand low yields from 1988 to 1990. Phosphorus fertilizer wasapplied broadcast at a rate of 40 kg P ha^-1 at the beginningof the study in October 1983. Soil test P levels in the 0- to15-cm depth averaged 16 mg kg^-1 in 1991 and 11 mg kg^-1 in 1996.Two SW cultivars with good yield potential, Butte86 and Stoa,were used throughout the study. Each main block of the studywas 137.2 by 73.1 m in size. Tillage plots (45.7 x 73.1 m) wereoriented in a north–south direction, N plots (137.2 x24.4 m) in an east–west direction across all tillage plots,and cultivars (22.9 x 73.1 m) in a north–south directionwithin tillage plots and across all N plots. The smallest plotwith the combination of all variables was 22.9 by 24.4 m. Triplicatesets of plots were established to allow all phases of the rotationto be present each year. Experimental design was a strip-strip-splitplot, with tillage and N rate treatments stripped and cultivaras subplots with 3 replications.

The CT treatments were generally not tilled in the fall afterSF harvest but were disked once to a depth of 8 to 12 cm inthe spring prior to SW planting. Surface residue cover was usually<30%> not tilled in the fall after SF harvest but were undercut oncein the spring with a sweep plow at a shallow depth (<7.5cm) prior to SW planting. Surface residue cover was usually30 to 60% after planting. No-till treatments were not tilledfollowing SF harvest and received one application of glyphosate[N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine] herbicide just prior to SW plantingin 1985, 1986, 1989, 1990, 1993, and 1994. Surface residue coverwas generally >60% after planting. No preplant herbicides wereapplied in the other years. Residue cover estimates were basedon visual observations using experience with photographic measurementsmade of residue cover in adjacent SW–fallow plots (Merrill et al., 1995).Spring-applied herbicides were used to controlbroadleaf and grassy weed species within the growing SW crop.Tillage treatments, agronomic operations, and herbicides appliedto the SF and WW crops are described by Halvorson et al. (1999a,1999b).

The SW was generally planted in early May at a seeding rateof about 3.2-million seeds ha^-1 with a NT disk drill with 17.8-cmrow spacing. The plots were harvested in mid- to late- Augusteach year by hand cutting SW samples for grain yield determinationfrom two 1.5-m² areas within each plot (1985–1993). In1994 through 1996, grain yields were determined from a 50-m²area with a plot combine. Grain yields are expressed on a 120g kg^-1 water content basis.

Soil samples, one 3-cm diameter core per plot, were collectedfor gravimetric soil water and NO₃–N analyses from onecultivar plot for each tillage and N fertilizer treatment eachspring (April) before N fertilization. Samples were collectedin 30-cm increments to a depth of 120 cm. Soil NO₃–N wasdetermined for each depth increment by autoanalyzer (LachatInstruments, 1989; Technicon Industrial Systems, 1973) on a5:1 extract/soil ratio using 2 M KCl extracting solution (1985–1992)and a 0.01 M CaSO₄ extracting solution (1993–1996). Volumetricsoil water content was estimated from gravimetric soil watermeasurements using a soil bulk density of 1.42 gm cm^-3 for theprofile (Black and Tanaka, 1997). Total plant available waterwas estimated as the sum of spring soil PAW in the 0- to 120-cmprofile plus growing season precipitation (April through August).Spring soil PAW was estimated by subtracting the lowest measuredsoil water content (152 mm) in the 0- to 120-cm profile followingSW harvest during the 12-yr study from soil water contents inthe 0- to 120-cm soil profile each spring. Precipitation wasmeasured from April through October each year with a recordingrain-gauge at the site. November through March precipitationwas estimated from the U.S. Weather Bureau measurements madeat the Northern Great Plains Research Laboratory at Mandan,ND, which was located approximately 5 km northeast of the site.

Analysis of variance procedures were conducted using SAS statisticalprocedures (SAS Institute, 1991) with years treated as a fixedvariable. All differences discussed are significant at the P= 0.05 probability level unless otherwise stated. A least significantdifference (LSD) was calculated only when the analysis of varianceF-test was significant at the P = 0.05 probability level.

Results
Soil Nitrate Nitrogen
Spring soil NO₃–N levels varied significantly with tillagesystem, N rate, and year with significant tillage x year, Nrate x year, and tillage x N rate x year interactions. Springsoil NO₃–N levels (0- to 120-cm depth) associated withthe tillage x N rate x year interaction are reported in Table 1. No differences were observed in spring soil NO₃–Nlevels among tillage treatments when compared over N rates andyears from 1985 through 1988. In 1989, spring soil NO₃–Nlevels were significantly greater with MT than with NT and CTfor the highest N rate. In 1990, spring soil NO₃–N levelswere greater with CT than NT at the highest N rate. In 1991,CT and MT had a higher level of soil NO₃–N than NT atthe low N rate. At the medium N rate, CT had a higher soil NO₃–Nlevel than MT and NT. At the high N rate, MT had a higher levelof soil NO₃–N than CT and NT. In 1992, CT had a higherlevel of soil NO₃–N than MT and NT at the low and highN rates. At the medium N rate, soil NO₃–N was greaterwith CT than MT. In 1993, there were no differences in soilNO₃–N among tillage treatments at the low N rate, withCT having higher levels than NT at the medium N rate and CTand MT having higher levels than NT at the highest N rate. In1994, MT had a higher level of soil NO₃–N than NT at thelowest N rate, with CT and MT having higher levels than NT atthe medium N rate and CT having higher levels than MT and NTat the highest N rate. In 1995 and 1996, no differences wereobserved among tillage treatments for each of the N rates. Thedata in Table 1 show that spring soil NO₃–N in the soilprofile had increased considerably following the drought yearsof 1988 through 1990, which experienced poor WW and SF yieldsand reduced N requirements (Halvorson et al., 1999a, b). Thetrend was for higher levels of soil NO₃–N with increasingN rates from 1990 through 1994, with spring soil NO₃–Nlevels in 1995 and 1996 approaching levels similar to thosein 1985 at study initiation.

The cultivar x year interaction effects on grain yields areshown in Fig. 7 . Grain yields were greater for Butte86 thanfor Stoa in 1985, 1986, 1991, 1992, 1993, and 1995 (6 out ofthe 12 years of this study). Stoa grain yields equaled thoseof Butte86 during the other six years. In this study, Butte86generally reached the heading and grain filling growth stagesabout 6 d earlier than Stoa, thereby escaping some of the effectsof plant diseases and late summer drought stress. This may partiallyexplain the greater yields with Butte86 over Stoa in some years.The overall impact of SW cultivar on grain yields in this studywas small.

Summary
The results of this study show that SW grain yields followingSF in rotation are generally enhanced using MT and NT systemscompared with CT during most years with adequate N fertility.Grain yields tended to be greatest with NT compared with CTduring those years with <400> treatments generally produced greater SW yields than NT, particularlyat low N rates. Leaf spot disease pressure was greater duringthe wetter years and at the low N rate (Krupinsky et al., 1997,1998). The results show that during extremely dry years (e.g.,1988 through 1990), reduced tillage treatments did not storeenough additional water to significantly enhance yield potentialover that of the CT system. Responses to N fertilization wereinsignificant during these dry years, which resulted in increasedresidual spring soil NO₃–N levels. Responses to N fertilizationwere similar for both cultivars during the average and wetteryears. Butte86 grain yields were greater than those of Stoain 6 out of 12 years, three of which were years with >400 mmTPAW and two years with 300 to 400 mm TPAW. Grain yields weresimilar for both cultivars for all other years. The highest12-yr average grain yield was obtained with the highest N rateand NT.

Spring wheat yield responses in this study are in agreementwith annual cropping SW yields reported by Aase and Schaefer (1996)using NT, Halvorson and Black (1985), and Black et al. (1981)in northeastern Montana. In 6 out of the 12 years inthis study, spring wheat yields exceeded the average 2-yr, SW–fallowyields (1737 kg ha^-1) reported for five southcentral North Dakotacounties near the study site for 1989 through 1996 (Beard andHamlin, 1995; Beard and Waldhaus, 1997). In two years, yieldswere 77 and 87% of SW–fallow yields; in two years, yieldswere 54% of SW–fallow yields; and in two years, yieldswere about 34% of SW–fallow yields.

These results indicate that farmers in the northern Great Plainscan successfully produce SW following SF in annual croppingrotations that do not include a fallow period. During productionperiods with low soil water recharge following sunflower inrotation, farmers may want to consider producing a crop withlower water-use requirements than spring wheat to avoid uneconomicalspring wheat yields. Fallow following sunflower should be consideredas the last alternative because of a high soil erosion potential.SAS Institute Inc 1991

Cover Crops for Sweet Corn Production in a Short-Season Environment

2008-02-17T19:19:00.000-08:00

Legume cover crops can supply all or most of the N requiredby a subsequent crop if legume biomass is of sufficient quantityand N mineralization is approximately synchronous with cropdemand. Three 2-yr crop rotation cycles were conducted on aLamoine silt loam (fine, illitic, nonacid, frigid Aeric Epiaquept)soil in Maine to (i) evaluate biomass and N accumulation ofalfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), winter rye (Secale cereale L.),and hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth subsp. villosa) plus winterrye cover crops; (ii) determine sweet corn (Zea mays L.) responseto legume and fertilizer N sources in a barley (Hordeum vulgareL.)–sweet corn rotation; and (iii) assess the accuracyof the presidedress soil nitrate test (PSNT) and leaf chlorophyllN test (LCNT) for distinguishing N-responsive and nonresponsivesweet corn. Both legumes accumulated more N than rye grown alone,although total biomass was similar. Sweet corn following ryealways exhibited a linear response to N fertilizer (up to 156kg N ha^-1), but generally exhibited no response to added N followingeither alfalfa or hairy vetch plus winter rye (VR). Both PSNTand LCNT were 75% accurate in identifying plots responsive toadditional fertilizer N. The legume cover crops grown were ableto replace all or nearly all of the N fertilizer required bya subsequent sweet corn crop, with fertilizer replacement values(FRVs) of 58 to 156 kg N ha^-1 in a short-season environment.These cover crops are a viable alternative source of N, greatlyreducing or eliminating the need for N fertilizer.

Abbreviations: FRV, fertilizer replacement value • LCNT, leaf chlorophyll N test • PSNT, presidedress soil nitrate test • VR, hairy vetch plus winter rye • DM, dry matter

INTRODUCTION

PRODUCTION systems that utilize N-fixing legumes as a primaryN source for subsequent nonlegume crops include full-seasongreen manure crops, interseeded legumes, and cover crops. Eachof these options present significant management challenges toproducers interested in reducing fertilizer N inputs or producingcrops without fertilizer N. For example, full-season green manurecrops, while potentially having the greatest impact on soilquality and pest/weed cycles (Altieri, 1995; Biederbeck et al.,1998), may not be economically viable because of the loss ofincome from that field for an entire growing season. Interseedinglegumes with or into a standing crop is common in small grainslike wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and oat (Avena sativa L.).Bruulsema and Christie (1987), Hesterman et al. (1992), andStute and Posner (1995) demonstrated that this system can resultin significant contributions of N to a subsequent corn crop.However, interseeding into a widely spaced row crop like cornor soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr] may require specialized equipmentand additional field operations, and competition between theinterseeded and main crops also can be problematic (Kumwenda et al., 1993).

Cover crops, generally grown over the winter between harvestof one crop and planting of a subsequent crop, can overcomeat least some of the obstacles associated with green manureand interseeded crops. It is well-documented that cover cropscan supply sufficient N for production of a subsequent graincrop with little or no supplemental N fertilizer. McVay et al. (1989)found minimal corn yield response to N fertilizer followinghairy vetch or crimson clover (Trifoilium incarnatum L.) covercrops, compared with corn following wheat. Burket et al. (1997)compared sweet corn yield following clover (Trifolium pratenseL.), rye, and rye plus pea (Pisum sativum L.) cover crops, findingthat both legume cover crops replaced approximately 150 kg fertilizerN ha^-1. Cover crop N contributions to vegetable crops also canbe substantial. Stivers and Sheehan (1991) evaluated the useof cover crops for tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum var. esculentum),demonstrating that yields were similar using cover crops andfertilizer N sources. There were minimal responses to fertilizerN following legume cover crops. Skarphol et al. (1987) usedlegume cover crops to supply N for snap bean (Phaseolus vulgarisL.). Bean yields following legume cover crops were similar toyields obtained with 90 kg fertilizer N ha^-1 without a legumecover crop.

The use of cover crops in cool, northern climates can presentadditional production challenges, including: (i) limited opportunityfor cover crop seeding and establishment; (ii) potentially smallaccumulation of cover crop biomass and N, especially if thecover crop is seeded after the main crop harvest; and (iii)the rate of cover crop decomposition and N mineralization, afunction of both cover crop composition and temperature, maynot keep pace with subsequent crop demand. In fact, these criteriaof successful establishment, sufficient biomass and N accumulation,and synchrony between N mineralization and crop demand mustbe met for a cover crop to be viable in any crop system. Theavailability of reliable in-season N tests (either tissue- orsoil-based) would better allow timely decisions on supplementalN applications following cover crops. Our research addressesthese potential constraints to cover crop use in short-seasonconditions, evaluating cover crop options within a 2-yr barley–sweetcorn rotation. The use of a cool-season small grain as the first-yearcrop allows additional flexibility for cover crop seeding andestablishment; cover crops can either be interseeded with thebarley or sown after barley harvest. In both cases, there isusually sufficient time for cover crop establishment. Sweetcorn, as the test crop, responds to legume and fertilizer Napplication. It can be grown in a short (90–100 d) seasonenvironment, although economic return is usually less for laterplanted crops. The PSNT (Magdoff et al., 1984; Fox et al., 1989)developed for field corn has been successfully used in sweetcorn production (Heckman et al., 1995), while the accuracy ofthe LCNT (Blackmer and Schepers, 1995) has not been assessedfor sweet corn. The specific objectives of our research wereto evaluate: (i) alfalfa, winter rye, and VR cover crop biomassand N accumulation; (ii) response of a subsequent sweet corncrop to cover crop and fertilizer N application; and (iii) accuracyof PSNT and LCNT in predicting sweet corn response to covercrop and fertilizer N sources.

Materials and methods
Research was conducted from 1992 to 1995 at the University ofMaine Sustainable Agriculture Research Farm in Stillwater, ME(44°56' N, 68°42' W). Soil type was a Lamoine silt loam(USDA-SCS Soil Survey Staff, 1992), on a 0 to 2% slope. Soilnutrient levels in 1992, from analysis by the University ofMaine Analytical Laboratory, were: pH 6.3 (1:1, soil:water),cation exchange capacity (CEC) 8.8 cmol kg^-1, 9.1 kg P ha^-1,215 kg K ha^-1, 323 kg Mg ha^-1, and 2276 kg Ca ha^-1, determinedusing a pH 3.0 1 M NH₄Ac extractant and inductively coupledplasma emission spectroscopy. Soil organic matter was 45 g kg^-1,measured by loss on ignition. Phosphorus was applied as triplesuperphosphate (0–46–0 N–P–K) and Kwas applied as KCl (0–0–60 N–P–K), beforebarley and sweet corn planting in each rotation cycle, accordingto soil test recommendations from the University of Maine AnalyticalLaboratory. In 1994 and 1995, Zn (2.25 kg ha^-1) was appliedprior to planting sweet corn, as soil Zn levels were less than1.0 mg kg^-1 soil. Three rotation cycles (2-yr each) were conducted, beginningin 1992 (Cycle I), 1993 (Cycle II), and 1994 (Cycle III). Barleyand cover crop establishment occurred during Year 1 and covercrop incorporation and sweet corn production during Year 2 ofeach rotation cycle. Calendar dates for field operations andcrop and soil sampling are provided in Table 1 and climateinformation is shown in Table 2 . Barley was seeded at 125 kgha^-1, using a grain drill without packer wheels, at 20 cm rowspacing. Alfalfa (cv. Saranac) was broadcast (13.5 kg ha^-1)immediately after barley planting on appropriate plots (3.25by 10.7 m) and the entire experimental area was cultipackedto enhance seed-to-soil contact. Barley was harvested but yieldswere not measured. Following barley harvest, straw was incorporatedusing a tractor-mounted rototiller, except in plots interseededwith alfalfa. Winter rye (cv. Aroostook; 112 kg ha^-1) and hairyvetch (cv. Madison; 56 kg ha^-1) plus winter rye (56 kg ha^-1)were then planted using a grain drill, with 20 cm row spacing.Newly planted plots were then cultipacked.

The experimental design was a randomized complete block withfour replications. Treatments were arranged factorially, withthe two factors being cover crop and N rate applied to sweetcorn. Preliminary analysis of data was accomplished via analysisof variance (ANOVA) with main effects (rotation cycle, covercrop, N rate applied to sweet corn) and interactions. Significantinteractions between rotation cycle and treatment (cover crop,N rate) led us to present data for each rotation cycle separately.Cover crop biomass and N accumulation were compared using leastsignificant difference (LSD) only if ANOVA indicated significanttreatment differences at = 0.05. To further partition covercrop and N rate effects on sweet corn, single degree of freedomcontrasts were utilized to evaluate response to N fertilizerrate (N linear, N quadratic), compare cover crops (legume vs.rye, alfalfa vs. VR), and evaluate cover crop by N rate interactions.Regression equations for N rate response were developed onlyif linear or quadratic contrasts were significant within thatcover crop system. Regression equations were calculated usingtreatment means, as they are intended to describe the generalrelationship between N rate and crop yield. Following Hesterman et al. (1992),FRVs were calculated for legume cover crops onlyif sweet corn yield following the legume cover crop was significantlyhigher than yield following winter rye without N fertilizer.

Main effects (cover crop, N rate) and interactions between maineffects were evaluated on three parameters: marketable ear yieldha^-1, total ear yield ha^-1, and LCNT. Total ear yield was usedas an estimate of overall crop productivity. The LCNT is expectedto integrate the plant response to both cover crop and fertilizerN sources.

Results and discussion
Preliminary ANOVA using a combined dataset (across rotationcycles) indicated significant cycle by cover crop interactionsfor most cover crop parameters. For this reason, rotation cycleswere analyzed separately. Cover crop biomass in the fall wasgenerally quite small [<0.5>-1; datanot shown]. Total cover crop biomass just prior to incorporationin late May ranged from approximately 3.7 to 6.9 Mg DM ha^-1(Table 3) , demonstrating that these cover crops are well adaptedto a moderately cool growing environment. Total biomass forrye and VR was similar to that found in more southern locations,including Maryland (Clark et al., 1994; Shipley et al., 1992),North Carolina (Rannells and Wagger, 1996), and Georgia (McVay et al., 1989).In Cycles I and III, VR produced significantlymore above-ground biomass than either alfalfa or rye grown alone.In Cycle II, the proportion of hairy vetch in the mixture wasvery low (<10%> date and harsh winter conditions without prolonged snow cover.As expected, root biomass accumulation by alfalfa was higherthan either annual cover crop option (rye, VR).

Cover crop N content (the product of biomass accumulation andtissue N concentration) varied widely, from 52 to 209 kg N ha^-1(Table 4) . In Cycles I and III, both legume cover crops hadhigher N content than rye grown alone, generally accumulatingtwo to three times as much N. In these two rotation cycles,the N content of alfalfa and VR were similar, as were above-and below-ground tissue N concentration. The N content we observedfor alfalfa (105–174 kg N ha^-1) is higher than the 20to 75 kg N ha^-1 found by Hesterman et al. (1992), although theyincorporated the alfalfa 3 to 4 wk earlier. Stute and Posner (1995)found that dormant alfalfa accumulated 40 to 50 kg Nha^-1 during the seeding year when underseeded with oat, butdid not provide estimates for spring regrowth immediately priorto incorporation. Hairy vetch herbage, when grown alone, generallycontains 35 to 45 g N kg^-1 DM (McVay et al., 1989; Skarpholet al., 1987) and mineralizes very rapidly when incorporatedinto the soil. Growing this legume in mixture with a small graingenerally dilutes tissue N concentration for the herbage asa whole. Even with this dilution effect, VR accumulated as muchN as alfalfa and had similar tissue N concentration (Table 4).As mentioned above, hairy vetch growth during Cycle II was verylimited, thus tissue N concentration and N content were similarto rye grown alone. Rye is a standard cover crop in many areasbecause of its winterhardiness and tolerance of late planting.As we found in our research, it can produce a substantial amountof biomass as a winter cover crop, generally from 2.5 to 5.5Mg DM ha^-1 in northern climates (Tollenaar et al., 1993, inOntario; Kuo et al., 1996, in Washington). However, tissue Nconcentration is commonly 10 to 15 g kg^-1 or less, especiallyafter seedhead emergence, so total N accumulation may be low.

Conclusions
Sweet corn following alfalfa or VR generally did not respondto additional N fertilizer, as it did following rye grown alone.Alfalfa and VR cover crops supplied all or nearly all of theN required by sweet corn, with FRV ranging from 58 to 156 kgN ha^-1. In one rotation cycle (Cycle II), however, severe winterconditions limited survival of both legume cover crops, resultingin no significant N contribution from the legumes. Both thePSNT and LCNT, using previously established critical valuesof 25 mg kg^-1 (Heckman et al., 1995) and 43.5 SPAD units (Jemison and Lytle, 1996),respectively, could identify responsive siteswith an accuracy of about 75%.

Using a Nitrate Specific Ion Electrode to Determine Stalk Nitrate–Nitrogen Concentration

2008-02-17T19:07:00.000-08:00

The end-of-season stalk NO₃ test has been used to determineN sufficiency in corn (Zea mays L.). Nitrate concentration iscommonly determined with flow-injection analysis (FIA), whichis accurate but uses hazardous chemicals and is time-consuming.Use of a simpler method of NO₃ determination, such as the NO₃specific ion electrode (SIE), may save time and costs, and reducehazards. The objective of this study was to compare estimatesof stalk NO₃ concentration by FIA and NO₃ SIE. For FIA, NO₃was extracted with 2 M KCl, and the extract was filtered beforeanalysis. For SIE, NO₃ was extracted with 0.04 M (NH₄)₂SO₄,and the extract was analyzed without filtration. The slope ofthe linear regression between concentrations estimated by SIEand FIA did not differ from 1.0. Use of the NO₃ SIE, comparedwith FIA, reduces costs, sample processing, and use of hazardouschemicals.

Abbreviations: FIA, flow-injection analysis • SIE, specific ion electrode

INTRODUCTION

THE END-OF-SEASON corn stalk NO₃ test was proposed and advocatedby Binford et al. (1990) as a method of determining if excessiveor insufficient N was available to the corn crop during thelatter part of the season. In the test, 20-cm segments of cornstalks (between 10 and 30 cm above the soil) are collected fromseveral plants (10), dried, ground, and analyzed for NO₃–N.Nitrate N concentrations less than about 700 mg kg^-1 plant tissueindicate that available N limited grain yield; NO₃–N concentrationsabove 2000 mg kg^-1 indicate that excessive amounts of N wereavailable to the crop (Binford et al., 1992). Other researchershave evaluated the proposed test and concur that when end-of-seasonstalk NO₃ concentrations are great (>2000 mg kg^-1), excessivelevels of N were available to the crop (Varvel et al., 1997).These studies suggest that the end-of-season corn stalk NO₃test can be used as a postmortem to determine if yield-limitingor excessive N was present. Historical knowledge of crop N needmay be used by producers to guide future fertilizer-N management,thereby improving profitability and reducing environmental degradation.

In the initial publications on use of the end-of-season stalkNO₃ test, Binford et al. (1990, 1992) reported using the MgO–Devardaalloy steam-distillation procedure (Keeney and Nelson, 1982)and the Lachat¹ flow-injection procedure (Lachat Instruments,Milwaukee; Method 12-107-04-1-B) to determine NO₃ concentrationin aliquots of filtered extracts prepared by shaking known weightsof ground stalk material for 30 min in 100 mL of 2 M KCl. Thoughaccurate, these analytical procedures are expensive, time-consuming,and employ hazardous chemicals (strong acids and bases and Cd).

Given that the goal of the stalk NO₃ test is to determine ifstalk NO₃–N concentrations are less than 700 mg kg^-1 orgreater than 2000 mg kg^-1, it seems logical that a somewhatless accurate procedure could provide essentially the same information,with the possibility of saving time and laboratory resourcesand avoiding safety and environmental hazard issues. A candidateprocedure that is less expensive and less time-consuming, butmay be less accurate, is the use of a NO₃ SIE. The object ofthis study was to compare stalk NO₃ concentration determinedby the flow-injection method and NO₃ SIE techniques.
Materials and methods
Shortly after physiological maturity, stalk samples were collectedfrom 10 corn plants in a crop sequence x inbred line x N rateexperiment initiated to determine the optimum rate of N fertilizerapplication for hybrid seed production fields (Wilhelm and Johnson, 1997).Twenty-two (Table 1) of these samples were selectedfor use in this study to compare methods of determining stalkNO₃ concentration. Samples were selected a priori to representthe range of treatment combinations in the study, and thereforewere assumed to provide samples covering the range of stalkNO₃ concentrations found in producers' fields.
Stalk segments were 10 to 20 cm in length and came from thebase of the stalk, from 0 to 25 cm above the soil surface. Atsampling time, all plants in a 3.1-m segment of row were cutat the soil surface and moved to the field edge. Ten of theseplants were selected at random and a stalk segment was takenfrom each. Each stalk segment was composed of one node and oneinternode (Fig. 1) . Individuals collecting the samples estimatedthe fraction of total length of internode between the lowestnode and the cut end of the stalk on each sampled plant. Thelength of internode above the lowest node needed to representthe complement of the fraction below the node was estimatedand the stalk cut at that point. In the example shown in Fig. 1,about 0.3 of the internode below the lowest node remainedon the stalk as it was removed from the field. To collect theequivalent of one internode, 0.7 of the internode above thelowest node was estimated and the stalk cut at that point. Inso doing, each stalk segment was composed of one node and oneinternode, but part of the internode portion of the sample camefrom the internode below the node and part from the internodeabove the node. This sampling procedure was used so that differencesin NO₃ concentration between node and internode tissue and differencesin length of internodes would not influence estimates of thestalk NO₃ concentration. Stalk segments were dried at about60°C and ground with a Wiley mill to pass a 2-mm screenbefore extraction and NO₃ analysis.

In this paper we will use the term FIA to mean the automatedprocedure for NO₃ analysis defined by Lachat Instruments (Milwaukee,WI; Method 12-107-04-1-B). This procedure is a modificationof the Griess–Ilosvay method (Keeney and Nelson, 1982).Nitrate was extracted by shaking a 0.25-g sample of ground stalktissue for 30 min with 100 mL of 2 M KCl. Extraction media werefiltered through Whatman No. 1 paper before analysis with theflow-injection procedure.

For the NO₃ SIE method, 0.25 g of stalk tissue was shaken with50 mL of 0.04 M (NH₄)₂SO₄ for 30 min. This extraction mediumwas chosen because it is one of many possible weak salt solutionsthat could be used to extract NO₃ from plant tissue and is thesolution used in the outer chamber of the reference electrode.If water were used as the extraction medium, equal parts ofextractant and 0.08 M (NH₄)₂SO₄ would be combined to determineNO₃ concentration with the NO₃ SIE. By using 0.04 M (NH₄)₂SO₄,the need to filter the media was also eliminated, because theelectrode could be placed directly into the extraction mediumto determine NO₃ concentration. Reference and NO₃ SIE (OrionResearch, Boston) were placed directly into the agitating extractionmedia and electrometer readings observed. Readings were recordedafter sequential additions of 1-mL aliquots of NO₃ interferencesuppressor [0.0378 M (Al₂SO₄)₃, 0.0109 M Ag₂SO₄, 0.0257 M H₃SNO₃,and 0.0210 M H₃BO₃] produced no change in meter output. Severalions can influence the accuracy of NO₃ concentration estimatesmade with NO₃ SIE. The NO₃ interference suppressor was usedto eliminate interference from organic anions (aluminum sulfate),halogens, cyanide and sulfide ions (silver sulfate), nitrite(sulfamic acid), and carbonate and bicarbonate ions (boric acid;Orion Research, 1980).

For both analytical methods, NO₃–N concentration in stalktissue was calculated from a standard curve (NO₃–N onlog scale) developed from known standards ranging in NO₃–Nconcentration from 0 to 20 mg kg^-1. For the FIA, standards wereprepared in 2 M KCl; for the NO₃ SIE, in 0.04 M (NH₄)₂SO₄. Analysisof variance, regression analysis, and t-tests were used to determineif the two methods differed in their estimates of NO₃ concentrationand how the differences affected interpretation of the end-of-seasonstalk NO₃ test.

Results and discussion
To be useful as an alternative method for assessing stalk NO₃concentration, the NO₃ SIE method must have two characteristics.First, mean values must be similar to those found by methodsassumed to be the standard (FIA). Secondly, estimates of NO₃concentration must be repeatable. We will address the second question first. Though we expectedFIA to provide more precision than the NO₃ SIE, mean standarddeviations (3 extractions and analyses on each of 22 samples)for the two methods were similar; 37.5 mg NO₃–N kg^-1 forFIA and 44.3 mg NO₃–N kg^-1 for the NO₃ SIE. Sample NO₃–Nconcentrations ranged from about 100 to 5300 mg kg^-1. Thesestandard deviations values may seem large; however, when theywere converted to coefficients of variation and expressed aspercent of the mean, the precision of both methods was veryacceptable (1.5% for FIA and 1.8% for NO₃ SIE). Visual examinationof the relationship between standard deviations and means (Fig. 2)appears to show a stronger association between these parametersfor the NO₃ SIE than for FIA. However, when linear correlationcoefficients were computed the reverse was found: For the NO₃SIE method, ; for the FIA method, . This apparent contradiction was caused by thestrong influence of five samples that showed very little variationwith the NO₃ SIE (i.e., the five points falling on the x-axisin Fig. 2). When these points were removed, results of the correlationanalysis agreed with our visual assessment. The recalculatedcorrelation coefficient for the NO₃ SIE method was . The reason for several points having no variationis largely an artifact of the use of a digital electrometerto measure output from the NO₃ SIE. The meter cannot displayvery small differences between samples. Therefore, the meterreadout was the same for all samples and the variation was calculatedto be zero. The purpose of the stalk NO₃ test is to determineif NO₃–N concentrations are less than 700 mg kg^-1 or greaterthan 2000 mg kg^-1. Therefore, the inability to detect smalldifferences between samples and a strong correlation betweenthe mean and standard deviation of measurements (undesirablecharacteristics for analytical procedures) have little bearingon the usefulness of the technique.

In conclusion, these data indicate that stalk NO₃–N concentrationestimated by the two methods may differ slightly. The strongrelationship between results produced by the methods indicatesthat any discrepancy between methods would be small and withinthe requirements for the end-of-season stalk NO₃ test. In addition,savings in terms of equipment costs and time for sample preparationcould be substantial. Use of hazardous chemicals is also eliminated:There is no need for strong acids and bases, nor for the carcinogenCd.

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