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TITLE OF THESIS OR DISSERTATION: SIMPLE FORMAT WITH A LONG TITLE SO YOU CAN SEE WHAT TO DO WITH IT

A Dissertation Presented
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SAMANTHA S. STUDENT


Submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Massachusetts Amherst in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
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TITLE OF THESIS OR DISSERTATION: SIMPLE FORMAT WITH A LONG TITLE SO YOU CAN SEE WHAT TO DO WITH IT

A Dissertation Presented
by
SAMANTHA S. STUDENT

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page


CHAPTER 1 NEW SCIENTIFIC DARWINISTS Introduction This chapter shows how Darwin's theory of evolution was applied to the study of human evolution by two of the most enthusiastic of the new scientific Darwinists, T. H. Huxley and Ernst Haeckel. Both Huxley and Haeckel adopted the anti-creationist aspects of Darwin's theory and used them to attack many traditional beliefs and social institutions, as well as to advance the claims of science to be an authority within society. The chapter also shows how Darwin's theory provided a basis for the foundation of comparative psychology by G. J. Romanes. Thomas Henry Huxley Huxley argued against primary anthropocentrism and the two forms of evolutionary anthropocentrism--"yes, but" and "Crown of Creation"--which are attempts to resurrect supernatural control of evolution or to portray humans as the goal of creation However, he is himself an example of the "engineering mentality" form of anthropocentrism. In this section of this chapter I focus on Huxley's contribution to the evidence favoring the application of the theory of evolution to human beings. Huxley saw evolution in general and human evolution in particular as what one would expect of life in an ordered but ceaselessly changing universe. According to Huxley, "naught endures save the flow of energy and the rational order which pervades it."1 In using the adjective "rational," Huxley did not suggest that he believed in a rational Mind or Lawgiver rather he meant that he believed the order of the universe to be comprehensible by a rational mind. The principle of the universe is order, and scientists are gradually discovering that order. The most fundamental principles of that order, as they are observed by humans, are described as "laws of nature."2 Life itself and all living forms are a part of that order, as he demonstrated with evidence from biochemistry and evolution. The chemical elements in organic and inorganic nature are identical," as recent scientific analysis of the chemical constituents of protoplasm had shown.3 Huxley made a point of reminding his readers that the chemicals making up living beings are breaking down and being reformed into new individuals all the time and that people belong to that system of life-and-death: Under whatever disguise it takes refuge, whether fungus or oak, worm or man, the living protoplasm not only ultimately dies and is resolved into its mineral and lifeless constituents, but is always dying, and, strange as the paradox may sound, could not live unless it died.4 Discoveries of Organic Chemists and Evolutionists Complementary: a Very Long Title So It Will Wrap
Since the basic elements in living and non-living things are the same, Huxley had no doubt that life had evolved from non-living matter.5 Thus, the discoveries of organic chemists and evolutionists were complementary to each other. If life is made of the same materials as non- life, the evolution of life becomes more plausible. Similarly, if the whole universe is constantly changing, evolution is universal, and the living and non-living worlds are related in that way, too. Most of Huxley's own work as a scientist, and certainly his most famous and important work as an interpreter of science to non-scientists, focused on evolution, particularly as it affects Homo sapiens. Applicability of Darwin's Argument to Human Beings Huxley accepted Darwin's argument for evolution by natural selection and set out to demonstrate the applicability of the argument to human beings. Man's Place in Nature was published in 1863. Although Huxley had given lectures on the subject of the human relationship to apes in 1860 and 1862, Man's Place was the first book to present the anthropological evidence supporting the theory that humans had evolved from or with other primates. The book is a precise and exhaustive examination of anatomical archaeological, and geological evidence for the evolution of Homo sapiens. It contains three essays, "On the Natural History of the Man-Like Apes," "On the Relation of Man to the Lower Animals," and "On Some Fossil Remains of Man." The first essay traced the history of Western man's discoveries of the "man-like apes," and then anatomically compared the various apes to each other and to humans. It also summarized what was known about their behavior. "On the Relations of Man to Lower Animals" demonstrated human similarities to other animals in order to convince the reader that Homo sapiens is in the order of Primates. An Example of a Heading 4 Subdivision Head One of the major controversies of Darwin scholarship is whether or not there is a "Darwinian revolution." I agree with those who consider that Darwin's insights, arguments and impact are significant enough to warrant the title "revolution." Of course, no intellectual revolution occurs without a context.6 Darwin did not invent the idea of evolution; there were major forces for intellectual change in science in general as well as social change. An Example of a Heading 5 Subdivision Head Nevertheless, most educated people still believed in special creation and the Argument from Design; naturalists expected and hoped that the study of nature would "reveal some meaning in it, something about man's place in nature, man's relation with God." Darwin's study did just that--but hardly what had been expected or hoped for.

CHAPTER 2 SECOND CHAPTER TITLE Ernst Heinrich Haeckel Ernst Haeckel, like Huxley, used science as a weapon against some of the prevalent assumptions and institutions of his day. For Haeckel natural selection was both a description of the origin of species and (because it is a mechanical non-teleological explanation of morphology, which paralleled the mechanical explanations of physics and astronomy) the final proof of the "unity of organic and inorganic nature."7 Haeckel wrote a number of books in an attempt to convert non-scientists to his ideas. Many of these were quickly translated into English and sold very well. The most important of his books for an examination of his anti-anthropocentrism are: The History of Creation (translated in 1873); The Evolution of Man (translated 1879); The Last Link (translated 1898); The Riddle of the Universe (1900); and The Wonders of Life (1905). Haeckel's Anti-Anthropocentrism Haeckel is explicitly anti-anthropocentric. Unlike the other people I am considering in this dissertation, Haeckel defined anthropocentrism and several related words, and used them throughout his works. Anthropocentrism, according to Haeckel, is one form of "anthropism: that powerful and world-wide group of erroneous opinions which opposes the human organism to the whole of the rest of nature, and represents it to be the preordained end of the organic creation, an entity essentially distinct from it, a godlike being."8 He distinguished three varieties of anthropism: anthropocentrism, anthropomorphism, and anthropolatrism.9 Anthropocentrism is the one that concerns us here. "The anthropocentric dogma culminates in the idea that man is the preordained centre and aim of all terrestrial life--or, in a wider sense, of the whole universe."10 Haeckel vigorously attacked this belief in human centrality as untrue and arrogant. He used arguments and evidence based on many sciences, including physiology, paleontology, and astronomy.11 But for the most part he used embryology. Haeckel claimed that he was the first to respond to the challenge inherent in Darwin's Origin of Species to reform the classification of species so as to base it on genetic descent. He attempted to outline a provisional family tree for all animal species in General Morphology in 1866; History of Creation is a popularized version of Morphology.

APPENDICES
APPENDIX A THE DARWINIAN REVOLUTION One of the major controversies of Darwin scholarship is whether or not there is a "Darwinian revolution." I agree with those who consider that Darwin's insights, arguments and impact are significant enough to warrant the title "revolution." Of course, no intellectual revolution occurs without a context.12 Darwin did not invent the idea of evolution; there were major forces for intellectual change in science in general as well as social change. Nevertheless, most educated people still believed in special creation and the Argument from Design; naturalists expected and hoped that the study of nature would "reveal some meaning in it, something about man's place in nature, man's relation with God."13 Darwin's study did just that--but hardly what had been expected or hoped for. Modern scientists and historians of science who argue that there is a "Darwinian revolution" include Michael T. Ghiselin (The Triumph of the Darwinian Method, 1969); Ernst Mayr ("The Nature of the Darwinian Revolution," Science, 1971), David Hull (Darwin and his Critics: the Reception of Darwin's Theory of Evolution by the Scientific Community, 1973); and Howard Gruber, (Darwin on Man: A Psychological Study of Scientific Creativity, 1974). Lewontin, Passmore and Coleman also have interesting comments about Darwin's most important contributions.14 Ghiselin, Mayr and Hull agree in regarding essentialism as the most pervasive intellectual assumption of the nineteenth century to be challenged by Darwin's theory. The clearest definition of essentialism is the one Ghiselin borrows from K. R. Popper's Conjectures and Refutations: "essentialism" is the belief that an unchanging essence, whether an ideal form (neo-Platonism) or inherent within each being (Aristotelian philosophy), is what truly exists. In this framework, a "species" is an actual entity, of which the members are merely representatives.


APPENDIX B THE TABLES Table 1: A Short Caption
first 0.45 10.2 103.5 second 1.67 13.8 200.75 third 0.3 2. 0.5
Table 2: A Longer Caption to Show What Happens When it Wraps Around Both Here and in the List
one Now Then Never two Sometime Someway Somehow three Oops Oh well So much for that

APPENDIX C THE FIGURES


Figure 1: Great Falls with a Long Caption to Show How It Wraps in the Appendix and in the List of Figures



Figure 2: Castle
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